جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « social cost » در نشریات گروه « جغرافیا »

Nowadays, one of the main challenges for the existing and growing human population is food providing. The use of water resources such as natural lakes, reservoirs, dams and rivers are crucial for accessing new food sources. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of the construction of Azad dam with an emphasis on structural changes in the affected villages. Water as key of life has a special place in geographical studies. Water is the vital factors to activate of human in its environment because the relationship of human with natural environment without water resource or access will be without support. Therefore, people have always been searching for means to access water. Among these ways, dams play crucial role in storage of current water resource, and storage of water behind dams can be used in different ways.  Technology to control, manage, storage and transfer water, besides producing energy, is important for sustainable management of water resources to reach an optimum situation and consumption. The economic evaluation of activities for dams is important in two views: first to optimize allocation and second to justify dams for stakeholders. The current study aims to evaluate the constructed Azad dam in Kalatarzan District, Sanandaj County, Kurdistan Province, Iran. So this study analyzes economic issues in view of people who live the dam base on tangible benefits and costs using benefit-cost method from merely available data and not necessarily long run profits and losses.     

Respondents were selected by simple random sampling method. The statistical population includes the heads of households living in the villages along the Azad Dam in the Kalatarzan District. Data were collected through a questionnaire and face-to-face interviews in 2021.  146 respondent were determined and asked. Descriptive statistics and cost-benefit model were used to analyze the research data. The number of villages around dam are four.

The study regarded the decrease in the value of changes in agricultural production (after construction compared to before) and the value of benefits and costs of the dam for the villagers around the dam. The results showed that the total benefits and cost are 65557.3 and 146368.14 million Tomans (IR), respectively. Also, the benefit-cost ratio (at a discount rate of 18 per cent) is 0.4480. As a result, the project of constructing Azad dam for those who live around it has no economic justification. However, the evaluation of results may change, considering all other positive effects such as tourism extension, employment for local people to manage the dam, fishing activities and hunting or negative effects like fast changing of living pattern, climate changes, increase of activity constraints due to live around dam. More specifically, the number of households before dam were about 209 and after that reached to 179 due to decrease of agricultural land that have been sold to dam project. To compensate this loss, a deeper investigation may help to increase labor productivity and hold human capital over there. If human capital will be enhanced in the study area, more value will be added due to the investment and consequently reduced population will be compensated.  
According to the area capacity, there are lot of economic opportunity which can take place after dam construction. According to the results, we recommend to establish a study regarding to find out the optimum cropping pattern to increase the income and reduce the losses. Added value of storage water in the area may guarantee investment to constructed dam and its safety. Therefore, the policy maker should provide the complementary activities emphasizing people culture and area advantages.

In parallel with the change of urban systems from the inner-city level to the inter-city scale, one can expect that many of the issues that manifested themselves at the city level will arise today at the regional level. One of the most relevant issues in this regard is the change in the regional space organization and the patterns of movement and consequently the social costs of traveling by private car. One of the most important social costs is the cost of emitting greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, as the most important greenhouse gas associated with human activity. Accordingly, the present article tries to clarify the consequences of negligence and neglect over time by calculating the carbon footprint and social costs caused by carbon in intercity travel in the Central Mazandaran region. The research methodology is based on the proposed method of IPCC and using the release factors of the Department of Environment, Nutrition and Rural Affairs of the United Kingdom. In addition, estimates of the world''s major banks, such as the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank, have been used to financially convert the social cost of carbon. Also, using the statistics of the Road Transport and Highways Organization, the amount of carbon dioxide emissions, its social costs and the amount of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by implementing policies such as launching transportation, light rail transportation system, high-speed bus system, replacing fuel and planting trees in intercity axes - Babylon - Ghaemshahr and Sari were calculated. The results of research in Central Mazandaran show that in 1387, 1392 and 1397, respectively, about 223, 270 and 365 thousand tons of carbon dioxide were produced from the movement of people and goods, the social cost of which can be estimated at about 12.5 to 18.6 million dollars. . Calculating the amount of carbon dioxide emissions shows the proposed scenarios in the region; Thus, replacing LRT with hybrid vehicles with gasoline vehicles, BRTs, and replacing gas-powered vehicles with gasoline-powered vehicles can have the greatest impact on reducing carbon and the resulting social costs. However, the use of complementary policies enhances their effectiveness. In addition, designing and planting trees on interurban axes and urban afforestation can complement the above options. However, none of the cities in the province will be able to finance the design, construction and commissioning of public transport infrastructure alone; Therefore, the synergy and cooperation of these cities is necessary to implement these policies.

The purpose of this study is to determine the optimal size of the metropolises of Iran during the years 2006-2015, by using the surplus function, based on the presence of the government as a provider of public goods and services. To do so, using the total surplus function approach which is defined by the difference between the total income and the total expenditure of the households working and living in the large cities, the optimal size of the metropolises of Iran is estimated. Findings of research show that the total benefits and total costs increase as population of cites increases. The coefficient of population in the household expenditure function is very close to the coefficient of population in total cost function, this means that the expenditure of household in the metropolises of Iran is increasing. The greater the coefficient of population in benefit cost function Than the coefficient of population in total cost function indicates that people living in cities benefit from urban interests, which is the same increase in income and do not participate in paying social costs and this has caused that the size of the metropolises of Iran exceed its optimum level.

By understanding the consequences and costs of failure of rural entrepreneurs, we can be prepared for the potential failure in these businesses and avoid a social economic crisis in the villages. Therefore, the purpose of this descriptive study was to investigate and analyze the cost and impacts of failure of rural entrepreneurs in Kermanshah County. The study population comprised all failed entrepreneurs in Kermanshah County (N=110). Research samples were randomly selected using the Krejcie & Morgan Table (1970), (n=86). To collect data, a researcher-made questionnaire was used. The results show that the loss of income, personal debt, low budget, sudden decline in social status, low self-esteem, sense of stigma, feelings of sadness, blame of others as well as feeling of remorse and regret are the main costs that most entrepreneurs will endure after business failure. Regression analysis shows that variables of gender, financial status, entrepreneurial experience, employment of other businesses, participating in entrepreneurship courses, failure culture, optimism, and self-confidence are effective in reducing the cost of failure of rural entrepreneurs. The findings of this research can be useful for empowering and preparing small- and medium-sized enterprises for survival and development and strengthen the adaptability of entrepreneurs, creating proper environment for learning from failures and errors, providing scientific and practical solutions for policy making for development and sustainability of small- and medium-sized businesses and preventing them from turning into a crisis.