پژوهشنامه تاریخ تمدن اسلامی
سال چهل و هفتم شماره 2 (پیاپی 99، پای ی ز و زمستان 1393)

Egypt had a high status in the teaching of Islamic sciences and Arabic literature and Egyptian Muslim scholars have played a key role in shaping the principles of Islamic teaching. Many Muslim scholars have come to Egypt from different lands to learn religious knowledge or to complete their knowledge. However, in the thirteenth / nineteenth century, following the uprising of the family of Mohammad Ali Pasha (re.1220-1805 /1265/1849) and the attempt to convert Egypt into regional power, serious developments in the field of science education in this land occurred and the ground for the arrival of new educational institutions and new knowledge to Egypt was prepared, and traditions and educational institutions of Egypt were influenced by the Western education system. This research tries to study Egyptian efforts to modernize their education system in the thirteenth / nineteenth century

One of religious wars is Crusade, that occurred between followers of the two abrahamic religions: Islam and Christianity; and It is important because of the time span (1096-1291M) and location (territories from three continents of Asia, Europe, and Africa), and its widespread impacts, which have continued to now. The influence of popular beliefs of the Christians on the crusades is one of the most important issues. Among these beliefs, the Christians belief in the miraculous works of the “Holy Places”, (such as forgiveness and healing) was very important. One of the main motives crusades was the desire Christians to visit sacred places that were believed to be the center of the world. They remembered Bible stories and sacrifices of saints by seeing the holy places, but at the same time those were conquered by the Muslims and were held in unfaithfulness. If this war was touched elsewhere, there would be no incentive to endure the hardships of this war journey, not the motive for its continuation. The pope's mention in the Clermont Council was also due to the awareness of this place.

Most of the 20th century studies on Islamic Historiography have demonstrated the importance of time, subject, structure and geographical origins of both narrators and authors. Of these factors, the latter has been emphasized as the base for “theory of school” for Islamic historiography. According to the theory, Islamic historiography, affected by the geographical origin, could be divided into two main schools of Medina (in Ḥijāz) and Kufa (in Iraq). The present work intends to evaluate “theory of school”. The findings show basing the theory on geographical origin is not supported by existing evidence. Moreover, such a theory is useful only to understand genres of works in the field of Islamic history such as Futūḥ, Ansāb, and Sīra etc.

The centrality of the Prophet sīra (biography) in Islamic culture and civilization, which includes the role of the intermediary of the Prophet in receiving the revelation and the human, social, and cultural-civilizational formation of it, requires that firstly, the various aspects of this sīra are known and secondly, its anthropological, moral and sociological principles, and, in general, its function in Islamic culture and civilization, are to be derived for making a culture and civilization. This will not be achieved except in the light of the requirements and identification of various kinds of the sources of the Prophet Sīra. The purpose of this article is by a holistic view and content analysis method to explain the religious-civilization requirements of the source's identification (based on the various aspects of his personality), the recognition of its varieties. Important and well-known books on Prophet life include three types of Sīra and Maghāzī, general Chronicles, and the local Chronicles of Mecca and Medina, which are excluded from this study. Instead, such types as the Quran and its interpretations, hadīth collections, biographical dictionaries, Futūḥ (conquests) and Kharādj (land taxation) books, as well as geographical and theological works by the seventh century AH, which have been less studied or neglected in SĪRA studies, are examined.

Different definitions for the terms Imam, Caliph and Sultanhave been presented by religious scholars from different theological and jurisprudential schools. At the early and the middle ages of Islam, the caliph and Imam were religious concepts and had a mostly political function. These concepts were also used by Muslims after the Prophet death (peace be upon him and his family) for the political rulers. Efforts to define these concepts and determine their instances have led to great controversies. This research tries to answer by a historical-analytical approach the question that, in the interval between the time of the Prophet death and the fall of Abbasid caliphate, in the Islamic society, what the meaningful relationship between the two concepts of the caliph and the Imam was, and historically what changes in these two terms were occurred. The research hypothesis is that these two concepts initially had the same meaning but gradually, by introducing these words into theological, political, and religious conflicts, changes in their meaning were occurred.

Islamic Historiography in its formal form and style started from the time that a combined culture and civilization inspired by the religious teachings and instructions and using the experiences of other nations and civilizations, had been created in the Islamic territories under the leadership of Arab Caliphs. Compiling the general history of the world and specially the history of Islam had been accompanied by the development of Shuubiyya movement from one side and by the numerous effects of the pre-Islamic Iranian culture and civilization in all the aspects of the social and political life of the Muslims from the other side. So the Muslim historians who were originally Iranians and had chosen the Arabic language as their written language and also the non-Iranians who had been attracted by the pre-Islamic Iranian culture and civilization, had been influenced greatly by the ancient Iran and numerated the virtues and advantages of the Iranian ancient kings in their works. Paying attention to the different aspects of Ancient Iranian culture and history and expressing its glory and greatness and sometimes regretting the ancient Iranian history in the works of these historians have been sometimes considerable and prominent. This article is going to have a survey on the archaism in the works of the historians whose authors were Iranian Arabs or had extreme inclination towards the pre-Islamic Iranian civilization and culture.