فصلنامه روش شناسی علوم انسانی
پیاپی 105 (زمستان 1399)

Futures studies is now present in scientific spheres as an independent and structured field of study and forms the basis of strategic studies and investigations. Futures studies is the science of intelligent analysis, exploration, designing and building of future and therefore is rooted in human prudence system and emphasizes the conscious and proactive engineering, creation and restructuring of future. Futures studies, and the key issue of future discovery and shaping, is conducted through basic fundamentals, principles and rules which are reflected on cogent theoretical and conceptual frameworks called paradigms. These paradigms manage the organization of observations, framing of perceptions and orientation of actions. Having based on a descriptive-analytical methodology, the present paper explains the concept and logic of paradigms, and then reads the conventional paradigms of futures studies, namely positivist, evolutionary and critical paradigms. Finally, the emerging paradigm of integral futures is mapped and processed. The paradigmatic shift and transition led to the emergence of the integral futures denotes the capacity development of futures studies in problem-tackling and its evolution into a meta-natural field of study.

The present work aims to study and critically analyse Taha Hussein’s reading on Ibn Khaldun’s thoughts. To this end, by employing the documentary and historical methods, we give a comprehensive review and analysis of the Taha Hussein’s readings on Ibn Khaldun’s contemplations. Furthermore, we evaluate and criticize Taha Hussein’s account of Ibn Khaldun based on the theoretical, social and intellectual backgrounds of both. It is argued that Taha Hussein has carried out his critiques from his modern and positivistic point of view, while Ibn Khaldun had been highly influenced by the Ashari tradition atmosphere of his time which comprises a completely distinguished idea on society, history, causality, etc., than the modern one. Consequently, our analysis leads to the conclusion that Taha Hussein’s critiques dismiss Ibn Khaldun's distinctive social and intellectual backgrounds and hence in many cases appear to be arguably imprecise and incorrect. In other words, Ibn Khaldun’s works and thoughts have to be read and perceived based on his own Ashari worldview.

Design science has recently been considered as a research methodology that differs methodologically and philosophically from conventional methodologies. This methodology goes beyond descriptive-explanative researches and takes steps to solve problems. Though this methodology uses the research qualitative and quantitative instruments in the process of data-gathering and data-analyzing, the aim of the research is not to provide a mere description or explanation of problems or phenomena but to solve a social-technical problem through designing an artefact, model, procedure, and so on. Despite the importance of this methodology in areas such as management, information technology management, policy-making, and some other areas in social science, little attention has been given to it in Iran. That is why, lacking a solution-oriented attitude, almost all the published research papers in the field of social science concentrates on the description or explanation of problems or phenomena. In this article, while introducing and analyzing design science as a research methodology, exploring its philosophical foundations, and presenting the common frameworks in this field, we will examine its application in Iran.

Retroduction research strategy based on realistic philosophy is one of the four research strategies in the social sciences, which despite the necessary philosophical and methodological foundations, due to the complexity of the mechanism explanation and the lack of appropriate research tools, has put researchers in this field in serious trouble. Realistic (theory driven) interviewing is an emerging tool that has tried to compensate for existing shortcomings. Lack of sufficient methodological literature for conducting such a type of interview, especially in the scientific community of the country, motivated the researcher, in addition to explaining the theoretical foundations and enumerating the distinctive aspects of its components compared to common interviews in both quantitative and qualitative traditions, to describe its implementation methods as well. Findings reveal that the distinctive identity of the realistic interview due to the researcher's theory assignment as the subject of negotiation in the interview, embedding teaching-learning and conceptual focus functions, the dynamic and expert-centered role of the researcher in conducting the interview and different criteria in compiling, analyzing and validating the findings, takes the function of this interview beyond the typical level of regulation or mere interpretation of data.

Positivism and Interpretivism have many applications but in face with power relations they cannot do more things and in this battle they fail. Third paradigm (critical realism approach) is suitable there. It has a powerful potential for influence under power relationships that are complicatedly mixed with social reality. Although critical approach is useful for the purpose, it suffers from something; this paradigm does not have any positive method for doing experimental research in social areas. For this reason, this research is going to define a new method based on critical approach.In this line, the research is presented "Critical Analysis Method" through exploring, studying more and justifying the perception of the critical approach. The new method is based on protecting three subjects: "Interviewee", "Interviewer" and "Reader". In this method the central point is to emphasize on the being subject of the three. The point helps it to be as a scientific method and as the same time penetrate power relations.

Though not leading necessarily to order and preventing violations and transgressions of citizens, the laws get together a sense of relative public order and prevent violations of abnormal individuals through regulating and approving rules. Due to the nature of legal rules and raising level of mankind culture and civilization over the course of time, it behooves the laws and rules to be adjusted based on culture and convention of target community. Regarding present ineffectiveness and abandonment of past ratified conventional or legal rules and regulations on the one side and dynamic or community affected legal identities on the other side, reforming the rules is necessary to establish order and facilitate social life. Employing the library method and theoretically, this research seeks to answer the question of which measures can be employed to reform the laws in proportion to dynamics of legal identities. Considering the subject, goal, time and place of researchers, causal, historical, comparative, ethical, and case study measures can be employed to provide the preliminary arrangements of reformation.