نشریه فلسفه
سال چهل و نهم شماره 1 (بهار و تابستان 1400)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in some of his works like the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (the First Discourse) and The Letter to d'Alembert on the Theatre, presented a critique of art, specifically theater, which was in contrast to the spirit of his time. His critique was essentially based on the Platonic criticism of art which was presented in the Republic. After justifying the fact that Rousseau's critique could be considered as a recreation of Plato’s critique of art in the eighteenth century, this article aimed to demonstrate that this critique, besides its significance in itself, could be essential to fulfill a novel interpretation of Plato’s critique. Rousseau, by applying Plato's fundamental ideas in his critique of contemporary art, separated Platonic criticism of art from Plato's unique metaphysical framework. Furthermore, by revealing the eternal core of Plato’s critique, he made it more acceptable and understandable. According to this interpretation, the tripartite distinction between idea, reality and imitation is reducible to a twofold distinction between reality and image. In this view the main point of critique is that art, by intervening between man and reality, prevents the genuine perception of things, which in turn leads to the loss of the authenticity of emotions. As a result, it would disrupt the ethical balance.

When we encounter with literary texts, works of art and films which are full of the relations of metaphors, narratives and actions, this important question maybe asked that how is their relationship and how it could be related to our understanding? In the present article, we will discuss Ricoeur's ideas concerning this problem.. Our thesis is that understanding in Ricoeur's thought is metaphoric, narrative and actual in nature. The metaphoric character of understanding will be shown on the basis of the "as" structure and seeing similarities simultaneous with differences. In his idea narration and plot are, like metaphor, gathering the differences with similarities and regulating them as unity. Ricoeur believes that narrative innovation with its referral to reality could be the origin of action and indicate the relation of action to understanding. Thus metaphor, narrative and action are the intrinsic aspects of understanding which are closely and fundamentally related to each other. As, In the area of hermeneutics, he extends the concept of text and its understanding beyond just writing, analyzing this theme will inform us the importance of the way of encountering different kinds of texts.

In order to know under what conditions one has doxastic justification for believing in p, we need to determine what the relationship should be between one’s believing that p and his reasons for believing that p so that we can say that his belief that p is based on his reasons for believing that p. Epistemologists refer to this relation as the “basig relation”. Different theories about basing relation attempt to answer this question that under what conditions one’s beliefs are based of his reasons. Most epistemologists believe in causal account of the basing relation and therforte form their point of view, if there was a proper causal relationship between one’s belief and his reasons, we can say that one’s belief is based on his reasons. Although the causal view is intuitive, the problems of this view have led some epistemologists to adopt other views about basing relation. Recently, however, a causal account of the basing relation has been proposed, which claims to answer the most important problems of causal views. This artivle is devoted to the explaining and evalution of this view about basing relation. After explaining this view, I will examine the three main problems of causal account of the basig relation and show that this view can be defended about the basing relation in the face of these problems.

This article tries to examine Husserl's theory of signification and reference, while presenting a content-oriented view of theory of intentionality and proposing the theory of the ideality of meaning, and thus explores the relation between Being and consciousness under the category of "objectivity" in logical investigation; Because the relationship between Being and consciousness must be sought at the intersection of theory of intentionality and objectivity. This intersection can be proposed in the truth condition of the objectivity of meaning, which acts as the decisive result of Husserl's theory of signification and reference; to this reason, after presenting Husserl's critique of Brentano's causal theory of intentionality, this paper introduces a adverbal reading of theory of intentionality which is Husserl's specific theory of intentionality in logical investigation. According to this theory, the subject always pays attention to the object from his perspective, and this is called the perspectival subjectivity, which is the intrinsic characteristic of the subject. We will then show that the theory of the ideality of meaning is the result of the threefold structure of Husserl's intentionality  and the content-oriented view of intentionality. Contrary to the claim of this theory that its true and inherent characteristic is intentionally its phenomenological aspect, the theory of reference and its corresponding meaning cannot satisfy the condition of the objectivity of meaning; Thus, theory of intentionality is based on an inadequate content-oriented attitude.

What we know today as Husserl's phenomenology is the result of his methodic attempt to understand structure of consciousness and the givenness of objects in this structure. One of the most important pillars of this method is what Husserl calls phenomenological reflection and contrasts it with natural or psychological reflection. From Husserl's viewpoint reflection as one of the most fundamental acts of consciousness thematizes and objectifies what has been already given implicitly. Thus, every reflection is a transition from a pre-reflective consciousness to a reflective one. In Husserl's philosophy, there are three kinds of reflection, corresponding to the triple phases of the evolution of his thought: natural reflection, phenomenological reflection and, what we call absolute or incomplete reflection.  Husserl in his works explicitly addresses the first two kinds of reflection but the last one is just understood through the deep contemplation of the third phase of his philosophy. According to Husserl every reflection has two interconnected aspects: the object of reflection and the agent or subject of reflection. In Husserl’s philosophy, corresponding to three meanings of reflection, there are three levels of self-consciousness which eventually lead to the triple conception of self or ego in his philosophy. In the present paper, while explaining the meaning of reflection in the three phases of Husserl’s philosophy, its fundamental role in each of these phases has been examined. Finally, it has been shown how changing the object of reflection in these triple phases, leads to a deeper and more fundamental understanding of the subject.

Between two conflicting views about the origin of language, i.e., Platonic naturalism and Aristotelian conventionalism, Farabi has his own independent original standpoint. Plato understood the utterance’s  imitation of the meanings to be dependent on the similarity of the Utterance’s constituent letters and sounds with the meaning, and Aristotle believed in nothing but the convention and contract in this regard between the speakers. In Farabi’s view, “the similarity between the structure of the Utterances and their meanings” is the necessary condition for the accuracy and strength of a language and guarantees the imitation of the meanings. Among the linguistic rules, he thinks, the derivation rule has the most capacity to show the similarity between the utterances and meanings and shows it in different circumstances. Some cases of it are the application of the “derivative” or “primitive” names to different levels of knowledge and genus and species of substance and attribute categories in different situations and the justification of their philosophical aspect. He explains that how the similarity between the structures of each kind of these utterances on the one hand and the characteristics and essential relationships of the philosophical concepts they refer to on the other hand, makes them qualified for this denotation. In another place, he notes that the primitive names for “being” in other languages show the characteristics and place of its signified meaning in philosophy and make the Arabic speakers aware of the possible errors they might commit due to the derivative-like appearance of this utterance.

Søren Kierkegaard (1803-1855), nineteenth century Danish thinker, is mostly known for his deliberation on individual human life in connection with Christian faith. However, next to this context, Kierkegaard also gives an account on social or civil life, although his account on this issue is less known in comparison to the former one. The present paper is trying to investigate Kierkegaard's account of civil life, from a particular point of view. First, an account will be given of the phenomenon of envy and its various kinds, as it is treated in Kierkegaard's literature. then, the way in which, Kierkegaard considers the whole route of western philosophy - from the beginning of the New Age to the Hegelian System - as a representation of what he calls "the Age of Reflection", and opposes to "the Age of Revolution", will be pointed out. Also this will be shown that how Kierkegaard - in opposition to Hegel - does not consider "speculation" as a way out of reflection, but in fact, its completion. Finally and by focusing on the phenomenon of envy, Kierkegaard's critique of the Age of Reflection will be explained, and his account of the two sides of this particular age, i.e. its threatening and liberating sides, will be studied.

The main issue in the present article is how the most important questions about the "meaning" of work and related issues can be addressed within the framework of a philosophical approach that can be called "work thinking". In this regard, an attempt has been made to first explain the meaning and importance of work thinking and in the light of that, the relationship between work with human beings and humanity and to explain the two approaches of work thinking with the approach of recreating the meaning of work (job crafting) and thinking with the spiritual approach. It is further shown that work is not necessarily a tool and can be considered an intrinsic goal in life. For this reason, contrary to the popular opinion among many thinkers, it can be considered not as an inherently undesirable and meaningful phenomenon, but as pleasant and forgiving. Thus, the line between working hours and leisure becomes very fluid. In other words, leisure should not be meant to be in front of work or even as a complement to it. Leisure is not a time of unemployment, but a condition conducive to doing important but lovable work without proper external control or purely economic motives, which he pursued voluntarily, passionately, and voluntarily. Of course, based on the level of work provided (job, profession, mission or inner voice), not all people can achieve this level of meaning of work and find or create their ideal work. In the end, it is discussed that according model of meritocracy.

All kinds of brain damages and neurological disorders (including dissociative identity, schizophrenia, mood swings, etc.) affect the loss and transformation of biotic qualities, mental states, and even the idea of the soul and "self". Observing these effects leads to the development of various theories about the existence of the soul and its detachability (from the negation of self/mind/soul, or denial of its immateriality up to rejection of its surviving. The theoretical framework of emergentism and Mulla Sadra's wisdom help to analyze this challenge and to provide a superior theory to dualistic instrumentalism as a general approach to the problem of neurological disorders' effect on the soul. By attention to two types of emergentism (substance emergentism and property emergentism),  and Mulla Sadra’s theory of the “Bodily Origination” we may tell that the body and the nervous system give rise to the hierarchical emergence of the soul (from the vegetative to the self-subsistent mind/soul) and all the proper biotic and mental properties. Under this emergentist correlation of body and soul, and due to intrinsic belonging of soul to the body at the vegetative level and accidental belonging at the substantial and autonomous level of the soul's existence, brain damages and neurological disorders give rise to the emergence of mental disorders as the disruptive properties for the soul as well as submerging of some of the mental emergent properties, without the devastation of the self-subsistent and autonomous existence of the soul.

One of the serious problems of “Naturalized Epistemology” in Quine philosophy is “Normativity”. Normativity is a prescription for justified true belief and seeks rationality and justification of knowledge. The norms of knowledge in traditional epistemology are defined on the basis of empirical or rational Foundationalism, but Quine was challenged by emphasizing induction and Darwin's Evolution. He introduced in response to the challenges the naturalized epistemology as “normative engineering” and “technology of truth- seeking” or prediction. The challenge became more, however, with the ambiguity of two words “engineering” and “technology”. According to Quine, normativity in the position of controlling hypothesis in the early stages, reveals the falsifiable cases of science and deals with the margins of science instead the context, contrary to traditional epistemology. Moreover, Quine by modifying traditional empiricism and shifting from it to naturalism, introduced the watchword of empiricism, which says, “nihil in mente quod non prius in sensu” as the most important norm of science that which separates science from non-science. Some another norms such as simplicity, conservatism and generality contribute to this norm at the stage of science discovery; but the truth conditions are the work of science itself, and unlike traditional type, the Quine's normativity has no role in justification of science.

Studying the intersection between religious experience and aesthetic experience can shed more light on the relationship between religion and art. Do similarities determine whether they have the same origin? Can we expect the same result from both? The present article has used library method in collecting information and descriptive-analytical method in inference. Common contexts such as philosophical and literary movements have played a role in shaping religious experience and aesthetic experience. Kant's subjectivism has had a serious impact on both, and they have very close epistemological similarities. After Kant's subjectivism and the reduction of religion to religious experience and beauty to aesthetic experience, many scholars felt that the relationship between religion and art had been severed altogether, and that modern thought has been able to break this close connection with the classical period; But after studying the commonalities between religious experience and aesthetic experience, it can be felt that despite Kant's project in the separation of religion and beauty, the two are so close that some consider the aesthetic experience to be a continuation of religious experience through different mediums. And after Kant, the link between beauty and religion has not disappeared.

In human life, many factors are directly or indirectly involved in the formation of her individual identity, which, in general, distinguishes her from others. Avicenna''s system of thought, some identifying factors, such as physiological characteristics, are directly related to the body, and others, such as moods and temperaments, are directly related to the soul; However, due to the close and two-way relationship between the soul and the body, these factors are always influenced by each other''s moods and characteristics and together play a role in the formation of one''s identity. The purpose of this article is to use the descriptive-analytical method of Avicenna''s view on how non-acquired factors affect the formation of human individual identity in five important stages of life, namely “embryonic period”, “birth time to two years”, “two to five Age”, “Six years to the beginning of adolescence” and “Adolescence and youth”. Among these factors, some, such as “raw material of the body”, “gender” and “family environment”, can be influenced by other human interventions; But others, such as the “environment” and “different seasons”, are completely natural factors in which man is not involved. These factors, which have long-term or short-term effects on the physiological, moral and behavioral aspects of man, are the total builder of his individuality.