نشریه مطالعات زبانی بلاغی
پیاپی 24 (تابستان 1400)

The paradox in literature is one of the most widely used measures to create space, meanings, as well as the creation of the imagination. The history of Persian poetry shows that not only the literary elements or arrangements have evolved throughout history, but they have also become more complex. Although in the Iraqi style, perhaps no poet as much as Hafiz in his set of sonnets has embraced paradoxical compositions. However, the two semantic and hybrid types of paradox in Hafiz's poetry not only serve as an instrumental or literary industry but also structurally form the inferior space between the two human-divine talents of Hafiz's poetry subjects. What this means is that paradoxes, in addition to playing their role as aesthetic delusions, have a double application in the formation of a paradoxical space in general. The present paper attempts to study the paradoxical structures in Hafiz's sonnets by examining the paradoxical structures of how the paradoxical thing, apart from its intended nature, can function structurally in the creation of new spaces in poetry. The results of the discussion indicate that it is important to note that many similar industries also serve as a structure in the poetry of conflict. Considering that the structural study of paradoxes is separate from the study of paradoxes one by one, it can be a new approach to the relationship between linguistic-rhetorical and conceptual categories in Hafez's poetry. In this study, we see how paradoxes transcend their own status as an aesthetic element and, in proportion to each other, produce a system or structure in which the aspects of good and evil, heroes and anti-heroes, and Truth and falsehood are also opposed.

Semiotics is a new field of study in explaining the function of the underlying layers of the signs, achieving the mutual relations between the signs, and its accomplishment is to discover how meanings emerge. Accordingly, we need a framework in the field of semiotics to enable us to understand the process of meaning emergence. In spite of the distinction between the "designation of meaning" based on Saussure's semiotic theory and the "lack of designation of meaning," based on the belief in the dark layers and the mystery of the text, it seems according to structuralism,  semiotic theories of Saussure and post-structuralism can achieve an understanding of the literary text and the process of meaning emergence and criteria in the linguistic structures and literary signs of the text and difference between word level to meaning in linguistic work and sign to meaning in literary work. Four criteria: indicative, structural,  evaluative, and characteristic can help to analyze the generative process of meaning and interpretation of the literary text. Hence, the aim of this research is the achievement of the foundations of the semiotics base on the four categories of "indication", "structure", "character" and "value",  and four indicative,  structural, evaluative, and characteristic criteria. Among these linguistic studies and semiotic, the distinction between the significance of the "word" on meaning in lingual work and the significance of "sign" on meaning in "literary work," and the two signal linguistic and literary systems are important. Ali Mohammad Haghshenas recounted these four categories and criteria.

Layer stylistics which is one of the linguistic approaches of stylistics analyzes the different linguistic levels of artistic work from phoneme to meaning. One of these levels is the lexical level. The lexical level is one of the most significant levels of language and is of great importance in stylistics. Considering that the choice of vocabulary has a direct relation to the style of each writer or poet, the stylistic examination of this level helps to identify the style of the works of each artist, and shows the relation of this choice to the meaning and texture in which it is related. Kamal al-Din Ismail is one of the famous poets of the sixth and seventh century AH who because of his creativity, is renowned for the creation of meanings (Khallagh al-ma'ani). In this research, we study the stylistic of the lexical level of his poems in order to show the relationship between the selection of his vocabulary and his semantic and poetical atmosphere. These words have been used to praise bravery, wariness, generosity of the praised and describe nature. The study of this layer also reveals the domination of sensual atmosphere on abstract meanings in his poems.

One of the Figures of Speech is exaggeration that in the most rhetorical Arabic and Persian books, extremes in describing someone or something is defined.provides clarity use first Persian Rhetoric scholars of rhetorical Arabic at Bring up theoretical issues, course of comparative and historical context the Figures of Speech in the Arabic and Persian rhetoric.Do This Research the historical evolution of exaggeration in the Arabic and Persian rhetoricfrom the creation of this arrayuntil the completion ofits division and Present clear Vision from Genesis of theoretical and dividing it into three rank Bombast, exaggeration and hyperbole, Definitions, names and different classifications of this array.It also shows what developments and progress has passed During Its history. How and from whom Persian and Arabic rhetoric scholars are affected in definition and analysis and divided to what groups? On what principles is it based the point of view of rhetoric esthetics of array? What is the importance and position of this array in their eyes?

Considering the social conditions of Hafiz’s time, this mighty Iranian poet got benefited from artistic tactics to convey his critical views implicitly to avoid negative consequences of his disagreeable viewpoints.  One of his personal ways in the field of rhetoric was using eloquence arts. In this domain, he derived the benefit from covert simile, metaphor, irony of widening type, irony of description, symbolism and an unknown kind of artistic innovation. And in two aspects of rhetoric, i.e., semantics and innovation, he applied more skillful ways. This article, through focusing on his sonnets (particularly his critical ones), is aiming at analyzing his creative techniques barely in rhetoric. To do this, we analyzed his implicit rhetoric within primary display of covert prospect of Hafiz in rhetoric field through exemplification and in every aspect, we concluded that Hafiz benefited from eloquence best.

Manuscripts are a valuable legacy of ancestors whose correct and scientific revision can bring the text closer to the original work and take advantage of the texts of past authors. The manuscript of Matla Al-Saadeyn is a work on the rhetoric of 12th-century poet and writer Sialkoti Mel Varasteh in the Indian subcontinent. One of the features of this work is the author's critical point of view, the lack of imitation and repetition of the contents of earlier rhetoric books. The author of this book also pays particular attention to the poetry of his era, the Indian style poetry, as most of the evidence points to the poetry of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. As more evidence has chosen an example from the poems of poets of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Studying this work can inform us about the status and quality of rhetorical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent. In this article, we introduce the manuscript of Matla Al-Saadeyn. The method of this research is to study, record, and collect information from authentic library sources and its purpose is to introduce one of the valuable subcontinent rhetoric books in the 12th century AH.

Are conceptual metaphors in poetry, the same metaphors we live by? This article wants to answer this question. In order to find an answer, the relation between conceptual metaphor and general culture is explained, and the position of conceptual metaphors in the ordinary cognitive system of society is defined. We introduce repetitive structures which determine application forms of different general conceptual metaphors (cultural). After this introduction, we focus on metaphors in literature. We realized that poets and other people in society have the same cognitive sources. Poet's cognitive system like others is a consequence of society and culture but cultural metaphors appeared differently in his or her poems. Before explaining the quality of its emergence, we describe two main kinds of metaphors (conceptual/image or non-conceptual metaphors) and show their differences. Basically, image metaphors have objective and concrete vehicles and tenors. On the other hand, the tenors of conceptual metaphors are subjective and abstract. In the next part, we draw the borderline of cultural metaphor and poet's innovative metaphor, and passing this line, we introduce methods that make metaphors poetic. There are four main methods that can be used separately or compound: Substitution, organic collectivization, expound, and critical attitude. In the end, we try to understand individuality in art by the form of metaphor application.  The relation between the rate of individuality and using conceptual metaphors is based on how different and novel can a metaphor been used in a poem compared with its ordinary usage. Results showed that direct automatic expression and creation respectively could show the maximum and minimum of individuality in art. We choose famous classics poems besides modern contemporary poems to show that the poetical expression of metaphors does not belong to a certain group of poets or a special period of time.

Application of vocabulary redundancy in an artistic way in prosodic texts causes disorder in poetry. This factor (vocabulary redundancy) raises the issue of vocabulary equilibrium which is quite remarkable in Sana'i sonnets. Using complete phonetic repetition and full and verbal puns, Sana'i has granted beautiful music to his sonnets, yet full puns are more frequent. By repeating incomplete vocabulary forms and balances in the middle rhymes, he evokes the dynamics of the present radifs by bringing a variety of repetitions at the beginning, middle, and end of verses in various word forms, combinations, and sentences in his sonnets. This has increased the intensity of energetic music so that repetition of the verbs with high frequency is significant. Moreover, Sana'i promotes his poetic music through using mid-rhymes and full phonetic repetitions, so while reading the poems, the readers feel such dynamics and mobility throughout the poem. Also, the use of long radifs and current radifs, and taking advantage of parallel rhythm with high frequency in place of rhythm, can further reflect the music of his poetry. The above-mentioned points have been discussed in detail in this research. This research has been done through using the analytical-descriptive method and library references and providing exemplary evidence of Sana'i sonnets which has reflected the use of lexical repetition and balance in these sonnets.

Just as our inner attitudes influence our behavior, our educational attitudes affect our classroom behaviors, including the choice of curriculum content. One of the issues in the Persian language didactic is the use of literary texts in Persian language classes for non-Iranian learners. This study examines teachers' attitudes toward the use of literary texts in teaching Persian to speakers of other languages. A 45-item questionnaire was used for this purpose. The participants in the survey were 26 teachers of the Persian language. The results indicate that the use of literary texts has a positive and significant role in the teaching of the Persian language to speakers of other languages. Findings show that words and symbols used in literary texts are difficult for Persian language learners. Literary texts are dysfunctional to develop language skills such as speaking, writing, and listening. But it improves reading skills and vocabulary. From the teachers' perspective, cultural and social environments in literary texts are unfamiliar to Persian language learners, and it is difficult to identify the cultural references and symbols used in Persian literary texts, but they can lead to the understanding of Persian's cultural norms and customs. The teachers prioritize storytelling for classroom use. Likewise, the findings suggest that gender, age, educational background, and teaching history do not influence the teachers' attitudes about the role of literary texts in teaching the Persian language to speakers of other languages.

Syntactic and semantic analysis of modal verbs, particularly “bāyestan”, has been a challenging topic in Persian language studies due to its special inflectional, syntactic, and semantic states. These studies are mainly focused on the uses of this verb in contemporary Persian, ignoring the historical texts. The current study, relying on data derived from Tārīkh-i Bayhaqī (1,114 cases), aims to review the challenging semantic and syntactic aspects of this verb. First, by referring to some of the morphosyntactic features of this verb, we have identified its status in terms of tense, time implications, and differentiation between different forms of past and present tenses. Next, we have shown that in the valency of this verb there is either a noun phrase (subject) or a complement clause. Subsequently, we have introduced and discussed two assumptions about the verb bāyestan: either considering the complement clause as the subject and the expletive pro. We have thus shown that the impersonality of this verb is due to the syntactic and semantic nature of the subject and has nothing to do with the changes of the verb during the grammaticalization. Afterward, it was found that non-finite clauses have no syntactic subject, and what has been suggested in some research as the 'subject' of “Ra” is in fact a noun phrase whose syntactic role is the optional complement of the verb bāyestan and its semantic role is the beneficiary. This noun phrase is essentially independent of the complement clause. In this regard, it was found that unlike Davari's analysis (1394), modality in non-finite clauses may also be agent-oriented, and at least based on Tārīkh-i Bayhaqī data, it is not possible to consider moving from action-oriented modality to agent-oriented modality as a grammaticalization process. Finally, the semantic examination of the verb bāyestan supported the previous analyses in this field and revealed that all uses of the verb in the Tārīkh-i Bayhaqī are non-epistemic modality.