فصلنامه تازه های علوم شناختی
سال بیست و سوم شماره 4 (پیاپی 92، زمستان 1400)

Major depressive disorder is one of the most common psychiatric disorders that has cognitive, emotional, and behavioral symptoms. The disorder is associated with abnormalities in the cortical activity of the brain. Many neuropsychiatric diseases, such as depression, are associated with abnormal connectivity functions in the neural networks of the brain. These abnormalities can be analyzed using a variety of tools, including electroencephalography (EEG) and quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG). The coherence pattern is one of the components calculated by the QEEG and is a scale that examines the coordination of connectivity across areas of the brain. There are two types of coherence abnormalities in depression including the high intracranial coherence between bands; & the low coherence abnormality between hemispheres in bands. It is hypothesized that the differences observed in the coherence patterns of depressed patients are mainly due to the increase in functional short-distance connectivity in the left hemisphere and long-distance connectivity in the right hemisphere. This increase has been interpreted as a mechanism of adaptation and compensation in order to overcome the inefficiency of the integration of cortical activities. Research has shown that EEG-based functional connectivity change following transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of tDCS on the cortical coherence patterns of patients with major depressive disorder.

Methods 

A sample of 36 patients were selected through structured interview by psychiatrists based on the criteria specified in DSM-5, by purposive sampling procedure based on including (age range 18 to 40 years, at least 9th grade education, minimum duration of 3 months from disorder onset and right handed) and excluding criteria (psychotic illness, mental retardation, history of seizures or epilepsy, head trauma, concomitant use of other disorders, concomitant use of drugs). All participants were assigned randomly in one of the research groups: recipient transcranial direct electrical stimulation (experimental group), the group receiving pseudo direct transcranial electrical stimulation (sham group) and the waiting list group (without any intervention). All participants were matched based on age, severity and duration of the disease. All participants completed the Beck depression inventory and their brain activity was recorded using a 19-channel EEG. Then, the data related to the subjects' brain waves for cortical coherence analysis were converted into quantitative electroencephalography by Neurogide software. After these steps, the subjects of the experimental group and the sham stimulation group were introduced to the process of treatment sessions. The experimental group (tDCS) received electrical stimulation by single-site method. In this stimulation, the anode electrode was placed in the left DLPFC region and the cathode electrode was placed in the right DLPFC region. This stimulation was presented to the subjects with a current of 2 mA, for a duration of 20 minutes and for 10 consecutive days. Subjects were then re-evaluated by EEG. The sham excitation group was such that the anodal electrodes were placed on the left DLPFC and the cathodal electrode on the right DLPFC. Subjects were then stimulated for 30 seconds, after which the device was turned off and received no stimulation; But the electrodes were attached to the subjects' heads until the end of twenty minutes, and the subjects were unaware of the lack of stimulation. At the end of ten sessions, the electrical activity of the subjects in this group (stimulation sham) was recorded again by EEG device. The waiting list group was also recorded by the EEG device at the same time with the interventions on the experimental groups and the false stimulation in two phases apart (10 days) by the EEG device. To analyze the results, the method of multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures was used in the design of a 7 * 3 * 2 * 2 * 3, in which 3 expresses between group variables (tDCS groups, sham stimulation and waiting list). 2 represents the within group variable of experimental condition (pre and post-test), other within group variable are including the cerebral hemispheres (right and left), brain areas (anterior, central and posterior) and different bands of electrical activity (Delta, Theta, Alpha 1, Alpha 2 and Beta 1, Beta 2, Beta 3).

At first, an attempt was made to evaluate the effectiveness of tDCS on reducing the severity of depressive symptoms in participants. The results of one-way analysis of covariance show that the tDCS in comparison with sham group and waiting list, also compared to the pretest, significantly reduced the severity of depressive symptoms in participants. Although the sham group also showed a decrease in symptoms, these changes were not as significant. Also, multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to compare the scores of intra-hemispheric and intra-hemispheric coherence and the interaction of its factors. The results show that the main effect of activity bands and brain areas were significant. The results also show that the interactive effect of hemisphere * group, condition * hemisphere * group, condition * regions, condition * hemisphere * band * group, regions * band, condition * regions * band and condition * hemisphere * regions * band were significant. However, based on the significant interactions obtained, the interaction related to the condition * band * region * group is significant. It caused electrical differences in different areas of the brain between the experimental groups. They showed a reduction in symptoms, but these changes were not as significant as the stimulus-receiving group. Also, multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to compare the scores of intra-hemispheric and intra-hemispheric coherence and the interaction of its factors. To follow this interactive effect, the multivariate analysis of variance test was used. The results of this analysis showed that direct transcranial electrical stimulation caused the coherence pattern in the anterior, central and posteriorly in different electrical bands in the experimental group (tDCS) have significant changes compared to the two groups of sham stimulation and waiting list. The post hoc test was used to examine more accurately the differences between the mean scores of experimental groups (tDCS), sham stimulation and waiting list in the hemispheric coherence pattern between groups. The findings of this analysis showed that the experimental group (tDCS) performed better in cerebral coherence than the sham when receiving extracranial stimulation, compared with the waiting list group. In other words, electrical stimulation significantly reduces the coherence in brain bands, especially theta, alpha and beta bands in all three anterior, central and posterior regions, except alpha 1 band in the anterior and posterior regions compared to the sham stimulation group and the list group.

The results showed that there are significant interactions on coherence modulation based on brain areas (anterior, posterior and central) in different bands (delta, theta, alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1, beta 2 and beta 3) and between groups (real stimulation, sham stimulation and waiting list) after tDCS. The findings of the present study showed that stimulation of tDCS led to a decrease in coherence in different bands of electrical activity, especially theta, alpha 2 and beta bands; This decrease in coherence was more significant in the central areas than in the anterior and posterior regions. Based on the findings of the present study, it should be acknowledged that transcranial stimulation has been effective in reducing intracranial coherence of patients in theta, alpha and beta bands.It has been shown that there is an inverse relationship between positive and negative emotions in brain waves, with positive emotion associated with high beta activity and low alpha activity in the left frontal cortex and low beta and high alpha activity in the right frontal cortex; Whereas in depression when emotion is negative, high alpha and beta activity is reported in the left frontal cortex and low alpha and beta activity is reported in the right frontal cortex. In fact, high alpha activity in the left frontal cortex means less left frontal cortex activity and superior hemispheric activity, in which people are less affected by positive emotions, which indicates that a biological background for depression is provided.These coherence patterns represent the activity of brain regions involved in specific sensory processing patterns in patients in a way that plays a significant role in autobiographical memory and the relationship between abstract and concepts. The excitatory effects of the anodal electrode on the areas receiving the stimulus are the product of a change in the excitability of the neuron due to the polarization of the membrane-resting potassium and a rapid change in the ion density below the electrode location.

Ethical considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
In order to observe the principles of research ethics, before starting the research, an informed consent form that explained the objectives and the process of the research, was provided to the participants. The information of all participants was coded with respect to the principle of confidentiality. This research has an ethical code from the Research Ethics Committee of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences with the ID (IR.TBZMED.REC.1396.385) and a clinical trial code (IRCT20180704040344N1).

Authors’ Contributions

Seyed Ali Arabi (first author) has presenting the initial research plan, collecting information and preparing the initial framework of the article, his contribution was about 35%. Gholamreza Chalabianloo (second and responsible author) contributed in data analysis, article writing and all correspondence and correction of the article and monitoring the research implementation process, his contribution was about 40%. Reza Abdi (third author) contributed through assistance in writing the article and supervising the performance, his contribution was about 25%.

No financial support has been received from any organization for this research.

Acknowledgments

This article is based on the master's thesis of cognitive sciences in Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Seyed Ali Seyed Arabi, with the guidance of Dr. Gholamreza Chalbianlou and the advice of Dr. Reza Abdi. The authors consider it their duty to express their gratitude to all the patients participating in this study who finally made it possible for them to cooperate. We also thank the esteemed staff of Bozorgmehr Neuroscience Treatment Center for their assistance in recording brain activity and performing interventions. We would also like to thank the Vice Chancellor for Research and the Director of Graduate Studies of Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University for supporting the implementation of this dissertation.

Conflict of interest

This study did not have any conflict of interest.

Perception of the size of human vision (The size of Ebbinghaus illusion circles) is not an objective reflection of the physical size of objects; and instead, it is more due to the interaction of external sensory information and internal state. The results show that the processing of visual size illusion is somewhat inherent, and the amount of visual size illusion is related to the inherent activity of the human brain. During awakening, human EEG activity can reflect cortical functions in the absence of sensory input. One of the EEG waves directly related to visual size perception is the alpha wave; most visual illusion studies have used this wave for their studies. The results of brainwave research on visual illusion have shown that alpha-band suppression is significantly associated with perceptual errors. In other words, the decrease in the alpha wave is strongly associated with the overestimation of the target size in the visual field. This research is more common in the general public and does not include specific individuals such as children with autism. On the other hand, according to the week central cohesion theory, children with autism are not sensitive to visual illusion. However, there are contradictions between the researches in this field. Therefore, the present study’s hypothesis is that children with autism are susceptible to visual illusion and the reduction in the alpha wave of the visual area about visual perception can also be generalized to the autistic population.

According to the predicted goals, the present study was of a quasi-experimental type with pre-test and post-test design with three control and experimental groups. This study included pre-test and post-test stages. A total of 33 children with autism ranging in age from eight to ten years (33 boys; mean age: 9.04, standard deviation 0.75 and right-handed) were selected by available sampling method to participate in the study and randomly selected in the three groups of 11 people was divided (two experimental groups, one control group). The goal used to perceive the target size was Ebbinghaus visual illusion. These goals are perceived as either larger or smaller. Then, the subjects first estimated the central target in the condition without visual illusion. They then performed a throwing 200 throw trial under visual illusion conditions and re-estimated the target size (in the presence of visual illusion). Brain data collection was performed by a 32-channel Mitsar-202 brainwave recording device made in Russia. Besides, data catch channels include O1-O2. Accordingly, the EEG data were measured in two stages: pre-test and post-test. In the pre-test stage, alpha-band activity (8-12Hz) in the O1-O2 region was measured in the two channels. The electrode junction was located in the occipital region. The reason for choosing this area is that this area of the brain has been used to record waves in research on visual error. At the end of the training protocols (200 throw trails with visual and control error conditions), the alpha band activity was measured again in the O1-O2 area. Statistical tests of mixed analysis of variance with repeated measures and analysis of covariance were used to analyze the data.

The study’s results in the perceptual task section of the target size revealed that the groups perceived the size of the center circle differently. Overall, these results suggested that training with visual illusion has affected perceptual task changes in target size; because there was a significant difference between the research groups in estimating the target size. Thus, when the center circle was surrounded by smaller circles, its perceived size was larger than when it was surrounded by larger circles, and when the center circle was surrounded by larger circles; its perceived size was smaller than when it was surrounded by smaller circles. Also, the results of the ANCOVA test showed that training with visual illusion has a significant effect on changes in the pattern of alpha brain waves. Also, the results of between-group differences showed that there was a significant difference between the research groups and the visual illusion groups that perceived the target as larger and smaller than the control group, which led to a more significant reduction in the alpha wave from pre-test to post-test. Also, among the visual illusion groups, the larger perceived visual illusion group showed a significant decrease in alpha wave compared to the perceived smaller visual illusion group. Thus, it can be said that a target surrounded by smaller circles, which show a larger target, is more associated with a decrease in the alpha wave of the visual area.

The results of this study showed that children with autism, like normal people and their peers, are sensitive to visual illusion as a cognitive task. These results pose a further challenge to the theory of weak central cohesion. Regarding the neural part, the results showed that visual illusion has significantly affect alpha brain wave changes; this effect was shown to be a more significant reduction in the alpha wave in the group of larger perceived visual illusion. Therefore, the results of this study can be used by people who work with children with autism in the field of perceptual processing. Children with autism are less susceptible to visual errors, which prove the theory of poor central cohesion. Visual errors are used as an accurate and valid tool to diagnose autism. Therefore, according to these results, it is necessary to develop early therapies to strengthen central cohesion in children at risk of autism. Therefore, the current research’s results suggest to educators and people with autism that training and intervention with any of the visual conditions can be improved the field of cognitive task learning in children with autism and can be helped to central cohesion of these people. Of course, it should be noted that this research is the first research conducted in this field, and the need for more research with different protocols is felt in these people and other disorders.

Ethical Considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
The present study included ethical principles, such as obtaining informed consent, the principle of confidentiality of participants to keep their information confidential, and the coding of participants' names. The study also provided sufficient information on conducting the research. In addition, participants were free to withdraw from the study.

Author’s contributions 

Article writing: Mohammad Hossein Zamani; Analysis of statistical findings and scientific and literary editing of the article: Hamidreza Taheri and Alireza Saberi, Brain wave analysis and EEG findings Majid Qashouni.

Funding

The amount of ten million Rails from the financial resources of Ferdowsi University was allocated for this research.

Acknowledgments 

We would like to thank all the participants in this study and all the teachers, principals, and staff of the exceptional schools in Mashhad who cooperated with us in compiling the present study's findings. It should be noted that this article is taken from the doctoral dissertation with code 52136 at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.

Conflicts of interest

The authors of the present article declared that there is no conflict of interest in conducting this research.
Figure 1. Average alpha wave scores of the visual area before training, after training with visual illusion

Time Perception is a category that stimulates human's intelligent curiosity for scientific manipulation and cognition. Differences in cognitive function of time perception in different areas such as time awareness, time perspective, and time estimation concerning different variables such as age, different emotional and mental states, different personality traits, and different psychiatric disorders have been studied. In this regard, the relationship between altered states of consciousness and time perception is one of the essential and new areas of attention. In this area, the altered states of consciousness due to meditation exercises have attracted a lot of attention. The mindfulness technique is one of the meditation techniques that affect human cognitive function, including time perception. The studies that have been done in this field are primarily in the field of cognitive, behavioral, and perceptual. However, very little research has been done on the electrophysiological mechanisms of the effect of mindfulness on the time perception.
This study aimed to investigate the effects of mindfulness on the time perception and brain waves using a bio section task with a controlled group experimental design.

This research was carried out through a randomized controlled clinical trial, which was lasted from autumn 2018 to 2020. 143 students of the Science and Research Branch of Islamic Azad University participated voluntarily in the experiments. In a structured clinical interview for the DSM-5 (SCID-5-CV) psychiatric disorder, thirty-one undergraduate students were assessed for mental health and brain disease.. Their mindfulness ability was moderate based on the Freiburg questionnaire, and they were assigned randomly into experimental and control groups, containing sixteen and fifteen participants, respectively. The experimental and control groups were presented a 13-minute mindfulness audio file and a neutral file to. 19-channel EEG signals during the temporal bio section task was recorded from participants, while the power of brain waves in different frequency bands were calculated before and after presenting the independent variable in two groups in channels C3, C4, Cz, F3, F4, Fz, and Pz.F3, Fz, F4, F3, C3, Cz, C4, and Pz channel signals from 19 channels, in 7 conditions, and two pre-test and post-test stages were used for analysis. ICA removed the EMG and EOG artifacts and blinking. Spectral analyzes in the range of 0.5 to 40 Hz were considered. Finally, the signals were visually examined, and the artifact was removed using amplitude thresholding.The Welch power spectrum density estimation method performed power extraction, hamming window 400 ms, 50% overlap, and 0.25 Hz resolution. Frequency bands, Delta 0.5-4, Theta 4-8, Alpha 1: 8-10, Alpha 2: 10-12, Beta 12-30, Gamma 1: 30-35, and Gamma 2: 35-40 Hz were considered. Signal segments were defined from the start of the stimulus display to the response moment in each trial. 500 milliseconds before the trial, and the reference interval was considered. The normalized power was calculated from the relation (signal segment absolute power minus reference absolute power divided by reference absolute power), representing the percentage increase in power from the reference interval to the excitation interval.Subjects were selected with scores (-1Z - + 1Z) on the Freiburg scale. An independent t-test assessed no significant difference between the two groups. Data beyond 1.5 times the interquartile range were defined as an outlier and removed. Normalized power of different frequency bands extracted from target channels was compared between two groups before and after presenting the independent variable using both ANCOVA and MANCOVA tests.

Based on the findings of the ANCOVA test, mindfulness-based intervention decreased BP scores and increased the percentage of long responses in the experimental group compared to the control group.Mindfulness intervention has increased beta power at C3, F4, and Fz, delta at F3, Fz and Pz, theta at C4, F4 and Fz, and theta-to-beta size at C4, Cz, and Pz.Alpha power decreases in C3, F3, F4, and Fz, and increases in Cz and C3; alpha 1 decreases in C4 condition 1; Fz decrease in C4 condition 2 and 3; Cz and Pz decrease, and alpha 2 decreases in C3 condition 2 and C3 condition 7; C4 and F4 it has increased. Therefore, the alpha changes in C3 and F4 were contradictory, and it is impossible to make an integrated inference from the power changes of this wave in C3 and F4.Nevertheless, alpha power increased at C4, Cz, and Pz and decreased at F3 and Fz.Decreased gamma power was observed in F3, F4, and Fz, gamma 1 in F3, gamma 2 in C3, Cz, F3, F4, and Fz. As a result, it can be hypothesized that mindfulness may also improve temporal function by increasing motor inhibition.

Thus, mindfulness has led to an increase in the percentage of long responses (Plong) and a decrease in the bio section points (Bp), resulting in an overestimation of time perception.Mindfulness increases beta, delta, and theta power, resulting in decreased arousal. The decrease in gamma, which indicates an increase in motor inhibition, physical awareness. and emotional regulation, was also proven in this study.The reduction in the theta-to-beta size, indicating an increase in internal focus, also shows in this study that mindfulness overestimates time by changing the outward-inward focus of attention.Therefore, these changes seem to be the electrophysiological mediators of the effect of mindfulness meditation on the process of cognitive processing of time perception in an overestimated way in time perception.Changes in alpha power were obtained inconsistently, requiring further research by examining the distinctive effect of alpha on the hemispheres.According to the results of this study, people estimate longer time intervals after performing mindfulness exercises by decreasing arousal, increasing attention to internal stimuli, and increasing motor inhibition. This effect occurs with the increasing power of beta, delta, and theta, and decreasing gamma, which are possible electrophysiological mediators in this process. Based on the contradictory alpha results, a more detailed study of alpha changes in the hemisphere is suggested.

Ethical considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
An ethical consent form approved by Tabriz University was obtained from all subjects. The present study consisted of data analysis, and it was approved by the Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Tabriz. 

Authors' contributions

Mohammad Ali Nazari, Mohammad Reza Feizi Derakhshi, and Touraj Hashemi guided the idea generation and design phase. Shahnaz Sabouri has done all the performing steps, sampling, and writing. Maryam Houri Pasand was involved in constructing the bio section task and its execution. Zeynab Khodakarami assisted in signal processing and data extraction, Behzad Golizadeh in statistical processing, and Homa Hashemi in typing and editing.

Personal funds funded this study.

The present article is the doctoral dissertation of the first author of this article (dated 2018/09/19 with the number 17/33419); therefore, the cooperation of all those who contributed to the advancement of this study is appreciated. I would also like to thank the Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology of Tabriz University for leading this research.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest

Today, a significant part of the challenges of adolescence are academic challenges. Academic Vitality is one of the abilities and talents makingpeople adapt to threats, obstacles, difficulties, and pressures in the field of education. Also, one of the factors affecting students' capacity to deal with these challenges is academic self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy and vitality play an essential role in coping with challenging academic situations in the school environment. Students who use metacognitive strategies, critical thinking, and problem-solving in their academic activities are more motivated to continue their education and achieve academic success and are likely to have higher academic vitality and self-efficacy. The studies indicate the educational package's effectivenessbased on cognitive components on the educational variables. For example, Orujlu and Hemmati Maslak Pak showed in a study that critical thinking skills play a role in increasing students' academic self-efficacy. Also, Soltani Banavandi and Askarizadeh, in a study, implied the role of critical thinking skills in increasing students' academic vitality. In addition, Mehzoonzadeh Bushehri, in a study, showed that problem-solving skills by finding new ideas and solutions to the problem lead to increased vitality and academic self-efficacy in students. This study aimedto investigate the effectiveness of an educational package based on the cognitive components of critical thinking, problem-solving,and metacognition on students' self-efficacy and academic vitality.

The present study was a semi-experimental pre-test-post-test with the control group. The statistical population included all first-gradefemale students in the secondary school of Zanjan in the academic year of 2019-2020. Since in a quasi-experimental study, a sample size of at least 15 people in each group is recommended, in the present study, a sample of 40 people was selected to prevent a possible drop in subjects. The sampling method of the present study was a multi-stage cluster. Thus, from education districts one and two of Zanjan city, district one, from the mentioned district, one school, and the selected school four classes and 12 people from each class were randomly selected. Then, considering the criteria for entering the study, the subjects were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups (20 people in each group). The criteria for entering the research included The first-grade female students were in high school, had a low score of vitality and academic self-efficacy, a commitment to attend all treatment sessions, informed consent to participate in the research, knowledge about the research goals. Furthermore, exclusion criteria included severe neurological disorders or the presence of psychotic symptoms, previous participation in the program , the same intervention and absence of more than three sessions, Failure to do homework. After the random assignment of the subjects in the experimental group and the control group, psychological thinking, problem-solving, and metacognition psychological package were performed on the experimental group during 17 sessions of 90 minutes in two sessions per week, but no training was considered for the control group.  Data were collected using Jenks and Morgan Academic Self-Efficacy Scale, the Dehghanizadeh and Hossein Chari Academic Vitality Questionnaire, and the Psychological Thinking, Problem-Solving, and Metacognition Psychological Package. Data were analyzed by covariance analysis and SPSS-24 software.

The mean and standard deviation of the age of the subjects in the experimental and control groups were 15.52±1.08; 15.74±1.12, respectively. The results show that the mean Self-Efficacy and Academic Vitality scores before and after the intervention have been changed. In order to investigate the effectiveness of an educational package based on the cognitive components of critical thinking, problem-solving, and metacognition on students' self-efficacy and academic vitality, a multivariate analysis of covariance was used. First, the normality of data distribution was checked and confirmed using Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistical test (P<0.05). The homogeneity of variances distribution was checked and confirmed using Levin test academic self-efficacy (F=1.787, P=0.195) and academic vitality (F=1.05, P=0.314). Therefore, the assumptions of the statistical test of multivariate analysis of covariance are established, and this test can be used to analyze the data. The results of multivariate analysis of covariance (MANOVA) statistical tests in experimental and control groups show that these groups have a significant difference in at least one of the dependent variables (P<0.0001). The univariate analysis of covariance statistical test (ANOVA) was used to determine this difference. The results of univariate analysis of variance showed that the group had a significant effect on post-test scores of self-efficacy and academic vitality (P<0.0001). In other words, the rate of self-efficacy and academic vitality in people who participated in a training package based on an educational package based on the cognitive components of critical thinking, problem-solving, and metacognition increased significantly compared to the control group. According to Eta squares, 65 Percent  and 56 Percent of the variance of self-efficacy and academic vitality is caused by a training package based on an educational package based on the cognitive components of critical thinking, problem-solving, and metacognition.

Considering the results of this study and the effect of the educational package of cognitive components on students 'self-efficacy and academic vitality, it is suggested that they be attracted to the curriculum by preparing curricula appropriate to students' cognitive and metacognitive requirements. It is suggested that due to the effect of this training in increasing students’ self-efficacy and academic vitality, the results of research conducted in this field be used in practice in counseling centers and medical centers so that in these centers, workshops, and courses Educational Cognitive components should be considered for school counselors and parents. It is also recommended to modify traditional evaluation methods with a metacognitive approach in the school education system. Considering one of the limitations of this study, since the subjects of this study were limited to the first-grade female students in thesecondary school of Zanjan, the generalization of the results to other groups should be made with caution. Also,  only a questionnaire was used to measure the variables in the present study. Part of the results may be due to the subjects' sensitivity to the test questions, test performance, and set norms, so it is suggested that other data collection methods such as interviews be used in future research.

Ethical Considerations 

Compliance with ethical guidelines
The participants signed the informed consent form and had the right to leave the study during any process of conducting this research. This research meets guidelines for ethical conduct and report of research.

Authors’ contributions 

Conceptualization, validation, review and editing: Masoud Ghasemi; Research analysis, references, data processing: Masoud Hejazi; Writing and drafting an manuscript: Khalil Hosseinkhani. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sector.

Acknowledgments

This research was extracted from the PhD dissertation of the first author, in the Department of Psychology, faculty of psychology, Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. In the end, the authors are grateful to all participants conducting this research and those who contribute to the implementation of the research.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declared no Conflict of Interest

In late 2019, a specific disease called COVID-19 was identified in Wuhan, China, and then spread worldwide (1). The coronavirus pandemic has had different psychological effects on individuals; one of these effects has been an increase in the level of coronavirus anxiety (3). Some researchers have used the term coronaphobia to describe the experience of anxiety and extreme fear of people suffering from this disease (8). In a comprehensive definition, coronaphobia means the response of extreme fear to COVID-19 disease, which leads to severe anxiety about the physiological symptoms experienced, the experience of high stress associated with the loss of a loved one or job, the performance of reassuring behaviors about getting sick and avoiding being in public places that are associated with impaired functioning of daily life (9). Coronavirus anxiety or coronaphobia is associated with a variety of variables. One of these variables is resilience, and various studies have confirmed the inverse relationship between these two variables. In addition, coronavirus anxiety decreases with increasing resilience. Resilience is also able to predict coronavirus anxiety (10-13). Another variable associated with Coronavirus anxiety is cognitive emotion regulation. Various studies have confirmed the significant relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and coronavirus anxiety. Adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies negatively correlated with coronavirus anxiety, and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies positively correlated with Coronavirus anxiety (5, 20). Cyberchondria is another variable associated with coronavirus anxiety, a condition in which people become severely anxious about their health by online searching for information related to health and illness. The results of Jungmann and Witthoft's research (2020) indicated that cyberchondria is positively associated with coronavirus anxiety and is known as a risk factor in the COVID-19 pandemic (23). Because coronavirus anxiety has a detrimental effect on people's lives, identifying and targeting its predictors can effectively manage coronavirus anxiety. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to predict coronavirus anxiety based on resilience, cognitive emotion regulation, and cyberchondria.

The research method was descriptive, and the statistical population included all Isfahan’s residents aged 18 to 60 years (The mean age of participants was 33.74±8.15) in the 2020 year. Among this population, the sample was selected by the convenience sampling method. Due to the specific conditions of the pandemic, the questionnaires were prepared online and published on social networks. Then, those interested in participating in this research completed the questionnaires. After removing incomplete and distorted questionnaires, the sample size reached 409 people (342 women and 67 men).  Data were collected by Lee’s Coronavirus Anxiety Scale, Connor and Davidson's Resilience Scale, Garnefski and Kraaij’s Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and McElroy et al.’s Cyberchondria Severity Scale. Then, data were analyzed using SPSS19 software through Pearson correlation coefficient and entered linear regression analysis.

Based on the obtained value of adjusted R2 (0.155), the results of the enter linear regression analysis showed that in general, about 15.5% of the total changes of the dependent variable (Coronavirus anxiety) could be explained by independent variables of the study, including resilience, nine subscales of cognitive emotion regulation including self-blame, acceptance, rumination, positive refocusing, planning, positive reappraisal, putting into perspective, catastrophizing, and other-blame, as well as cyberchondria. However, after a more detailed analysis of the model by separation of independent variables and considering the value of T and its significance, the results showed that in more detail only the variables of resilience, subscales of self-blame, and acceptance in the variable of cognitive emotion regulation and cyberchondria were able to predict Coronavirus anxiety (P<0.05).

The present study findings concluded that resilience, some cognitive emotion regulation strategies such as self-blame, and acceptance, as well as cyberchondria are significantly associated with coronavirus anxiety and are able to predict it. Regarding the research results, several essential points can be mentioned. Resilient people are highly adaptable to challenging situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic and do not quickly become severely anxious. In addition to resilience, the quality of cognitive emotion regulation (adaptive or maladaptive) can play a crucial role in managing coronavirus anxiety. Cyberchondria can also increase coronavirus anxiety. Based on the findings, it can be implicitly concluded that designing interventions based on promoting resilience, modifying cognitive emotion regulation strategies, and manipulating cyberchondria-related actions makes it possible to manage coronavirus anxiety. This study, like other studies, faced some limitations: For example, the lack of cooperation of some people in completing the questionnaires, the sample limitation to people living in Isfahan, the lack of random sampling, and not limiting the age range of participants in the study. By considering these limitations, the generalization of results should be made with sufficient caution. Therefore, considering these limitations, the generalization of results should be made with sufficient caution. By removing the limitations of this research, it can be repeated in other samples. Based on the results of this research, it is possible to prepare educational packages for the general public.

Ethical Considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
In order to comply with the research ethic, the purpose of the work was carefully explained to all participants, and they were assured that their information would be kept confidential and that they would not need to write their names.

Authors’ contributions

Maryam Daniali participated in the study's design, data collection, review, and correction of the article, and Elham Eskandari was involved in data collection, data analysis, and article writing. Both authors read and approved the final version of the article.

Funding

This research has no financial support and has been done at personal expense.

Acknowledgments

The cooperation of all participants in the research is appreciated.

Conflict of interest

The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.

Aging is a part of the natural process of human life and is a dynamic, progressive, and irreversible process closely related to biological, psychological, and social factors Most of the body's physiological functions, such as the central and peripheral nervous systems, deteriorate over time in the aging process. One of the physical and mental health problems is falling, which will reduce daily activities in the elderly. Studies have shown that falls in the elderly are associated with lower limb weakness, especially imbalance and poor cognitive functions. Overview research shows that falls are one of the leading causes of death in the elderly population, and older adults who fall are hospitalized ten times more often than normal people. Prevention of falls in the elderly is one of society's primary concerns. In the meantime, exercise, and physical activity are beneficial factors in preventing falls in the elderly. In the past, it was believed that only exercise at a young age would help increase endurance in old age, while research has shown that exercise is beneficial for anyone of any age. Exercise with a suitable duration and intensity reduces the risk of falling. Because most falls occur due to the interaction between multiple physical and cognitive risk factors; therefore, to prevent and reduce falls, methods should be used that include all risk factors. Therefore, it seems helpful to use mental and physical exercises that can simultaneously affect the mind and body and improve motor, physical and cognitive functions in the elderly. Research has shown that mind-body exercises can reduce the rate of falls in the elderly by affecting balance and cognitive function. Exercises such as yoga, tai chi, Pilates, and more recently, Square-Stepping EExercises (SSE) are among these exercises. The SSE exercises are low-cost, home-based, safe exercises that do not require special sports equipment that can be easily used by the elderly. Therefore, in the present study, researchers investigated the difference between the effect of Pilates and SSA exercises, which have recently been used in research, on cognitive and physical functions related to falling and fear of falling in older women. If the beneficial effect of the mentioned exercises is the same, the use of SSE exercises can be recommended as an alternative method of training that can be easily performed at home and by the person herself in comparison with other types of mental-physical exercises. It is hoped that the the present study results can be used by people active in this field.

A quasi-experimental study was conducted on 20 older women (60 to 70 years old). Participants were selected through convenience sampling. The code of ethics (IR.UI.REC.1399.046) was obtained from the Scientific Research Committee of the University of Isfahan. The participants completed the consent form. Then, they were randomly assigned to Pilates (N=10) and square-stepping (N=10) groups. Both groups did exercises for 12 weeks (3 days a week for 70 minutes) and participated in a pre-test and post-test. Pilates exercises largely avoid high impact, high power output, and heavy muscular and skeletal loading. As the elderly progressed, the complexity of the exercises increased. The Square Stepping Exercises were performed on a thin mat measuring 250x100 cm, which was divided into 40 squares of 25x25 cm. Participants were asked to follow the pattern from the beginning of the mat to the end. The patterns were explained and displayed by the instructor. Once the seniors became familiar with the gait pattern, they were asked to walk on their toes so that they did not step on the square lines. The step patterns included forward, backward, lateral, and diagonal steps, and the patterns gradually became more complex. A total of 196 step patterns were designed based on difficulty level progress in eight categories (beginner 1 and 2, intermediate 1 and 2 and 3, advanced 1 and 2 and 3), which according to the existing conditions, a total of 156 step patterns in six levels (beginner 1 and 2, intermediate 1, 2 and 3, advanced 1) were performed. Each step pattern was repeated four to ten times according to the learning of the elderly. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Wechsler Memory test, Stork Test, Berg Balance Scale, and The Falls Efficacy International Scale were used to measure executive functions, memory quotient, static balance, dynamic balance, and fear of falling, respectively. Analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to analyze the collected data.

Results showed that the main effect of time in categories achieved (F(1,18)=112.03, P<0.001, =0.862), perseverative errors (F(1,18)=147.49, P<0.001, =0.891), memory quotient (F(1,18)=45.44, P<0.001, =0.716), static balance (F(1,18)=48.78, P<0.001, =0.730), dynamic balance (F(1,18)=29.51, P<0.001, =0.621), and fear of falling (F(1,18)=54.68, P<0.001, =0.752) were significant, and the mean scores of perseverative errors and fear of falling decreased in the post-test compared with the pre-test. In addition, the mean scores of categories achieved, memory quotient, static balance, and dynamic balance were higher in the post-test relative to the pre-test. In addition, results indicated no significant main effect of group and the interaction of group and time.

The study results showed improving cognitive and physical functions related to falling and reducing the fear of falling following Pilates and square stepping exercises. Therefore, the use of both training methods can be recommended as multidimensional interventions to improve cognitive functions (executive functions and memory), physical functions (static and dynamic balance), and reduce the fear of falling in older women. The SSE compared to Pilates has recently been proposed in research in this field due to the fact that there is no difference in the effect of these two training methods and the unique advantages of the SSE compared to Pilates, including portability of training mats, low cost and simple design, the possibility of performing these exercises in different open and closed environments, especially at home and without the need for instructor supervision. Preferring these exercises seems an easier and more accessible option for the elderly.  

Compliance with ethical guidelines The present study was conducted after confirmation and receiving the code of ethics (IR.UI.REC.1399.046) from the Scientific Research Committee of the University of Isfahan. Besides, an informed consent form was obtained from participants.

The first author did the data collection, and the second and third authors were involved in research design and data analysis.

This study was funded by personal funds. Acknowledgments The present research is an excerpt from a master's thesis. We would like to thank the elderly of Kuhpayeh, who participated in the present study, and Ms. Buroni, who worked with the researchers in this study as a Pilates instructor. Conflict of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest.

Early maladaptive schemas are memories, emotions, bodily sensations, and cognitions that are formed in the mind at the beginning of development and are repeated throughout life and affect the way of interpreting experiences and relationships with others. Young et al. Have developed a classification of early maladaptive schemas that assumes that when caregivers do not adequately meet the child's basic emotional needs, these schemas form in the child and persist into adulthood (5). These needs include the need for security and attachment, the need for independence, the need for freedom of expression and excitement, the need for spontaneity and fun, and the need for realistic constraints. These needs are present in everyone, and meeting these needs in childhood goes back to the type of parenting style of the parents of these children. On the one hand, maladaptive schemas are associated with parenting styles, and attachment and mood styles are associated with parenting styles, and these are effective in creating or not creating maladaptive schemas. Due to the importance of the above and considering the research background, the present study was conducted to develop a structural model for predicting maladaptive schemas based on parenting style with the mediate role of attachment styles and students' moods.

The research method was descriptive correlational in which the relationship between research variables is analyzed in the form of path analysis. Early maladaptive schemas were used as independent variables in this model, attachment style and mood as mediated variables, and parenting styles as dependent variables. The statistical population of this study included all students of the Islamic Azad University, Karaj branch in the second semester of the academic year 2020-2021, which through the Krejcie and Morgan table, the sample size of 380 people was determined (Due to the prevalence of COVID-19 in Iran and the impossibility of completing the questionnaire in person. Therefore, the available online sampling method was used to select the statistical sample). The criteria for entering the research were: completing informed consent for participating in the research, knowledge about the research goals. Also, the criteria for exclusion were: has a history of psychiatric disorder, physical illness, and disability affecting a person's life. The Young Early Maladaptive Schemas Questionnaire, Buri Parental Authority Questionnaire, Hazan and Shaver Adult Attachment Questionnaire, Clowninger Temperament and Character Inventory Scale were used to measure the research variables. Data analysis was performed by descriptive statistical methods (mean, standard deviation, frequency, percentage) and Pearson correlation by SPSS-21. To evaluate the fit of the structural equation model (In the method of structural equations, multivariate normality is one of the essential assumptions that must be considered. In this study, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to test the assumption of normality) several indicators include: Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis (TLI), Bentler–Bonett normed fit index (NFI( were used by AMOS-24 software. Also, the Bootstrap method was used to investigate the indirect relationships of the routes.  In this study, a significance level was considered less than 0.05.

The number of female students is 187 (51.9%), and male is 173 (48.1%). The mean and standard deviation of the age of the subjects were 29.48 and 2.38; 182 had a bachelor's degree, 188 had a master's degree, and 56 had a doctorate. First, the normality of data distribution was checked and confirmed using Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistical test (P<0.05). The result of the correlation matrix of variables showed the highest correlation coefficient between harm avoidance and innovation (0.68) and the lowest correlation between permissive parenting style and insecure-ambivalent attachment style (0.01). The results of the model fit study showed that the value of X2 is 1697.08, the result of dividing Chi-square with the degree of freedom (2.99) is less than 3 that which indicates the excellent fit of the model. The good fit index (GFI) is 0.905, which indicates the optimal fit of the model. The modified fit index (AGFI) is 0.852, which is greater than 0.85, so the model has a good fit. The root mean square of the estimation error (RMSEA) is 0.075, indicating the research model's confirmation. The Bentler-Bount (NFI) index is 0.907, the Tocler-Lewis index (TLI) is 0.915, the adaptive fit index (CFI) is 0.913, and the relative fit index (RFI) is 0.925; all of this indicates good fit and confirmation. Also, the indirect results of the paths showed that authoritarian parenting style with mediated role of secure attachment style and authoritarian and negligent parenting styles with the mediated role of avoidant attachment style have an indirect effect on the early maladaptive schemas. Authoritarian parenting style with the mediated role of self-direction, cooperation and self-reliance, and authoritarian parenting style with the mediated role of perseverance, self-direction and cooperation and Permissive Parenting Style with the mediated role of harm avoidance have a causal and indirect effect on students' early maladaptive schemas (P<0.01).

While pointing to the complexity of the nature of attachment, character, temperament, and parenting styles, these findings emphasize the recognition and conceptualization of various variables affecting early maladaptive schemas. The results of this study show the importance of warmth, love, and intimacy in the parent-child relationship) the authoritative parenting style that leads to the formation of a secure attachment style. The results of the present study can be used to explain the factors affecting early maladaptive schemas and as a suitable model for designing comprehensive programs to prevent early maladaptive schemas. It is suggested that educational programs be held to understand the importance of parenting style for parents. The most important limitation of the present study is that despite trying to gain cooperation and creating confidence to hide the results (maintaining fiduciary duty), it seems that students' online response plays a role in their response to research variables. Another limitation of this study is that since the subjects of this study were limited to the students of the Islamic Azad University of Karaj, the generalization of the results to other student should be made with caution. Therefore, it is suggested that in order to increase the generalizability of the data, and this research should be done on larger samples.

Ethical Considerations 

Compliance with ethical guidelines
The participants signed the informed consent form and had the right to leave the study at any time. All subjects received information about the study. They were assured that all information would remain confidential and would only be used for research purposes. For privacy reasons, the names of the subjects were not registered.

Authors’ contributions 

Conceptualization, validation, review, and editing: All authors. Data analysis, resources, data processing: All authors. Writing and drafting: Matin Chaharrahi.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sector. This research was extracted from the PhD dissertation of the first author, in the Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran.

In the end, the authors are grateful to all participants in the research and all those who have facilitated the implementation of the research.

Conflict of Interest

The author declared no conflict of interest

One of the self-regulated learning strategies that are essential due to their executive role is the academic help-seeking strategy. Help-seeking is an active effort to use the opportunities available to achieve success. Students not only reduce academic problems when they need help and demand help but also acquire the knowledge and skills that help them solve problems. Help-seeking behavior has been studied in the research literature under the two headings of avoidance of help-seeking and acceptance of help-seeking. Avoidance of help-seeking refers to a behavior in which the student who needs help refuses to receive help. Conversely, acceptance of help-seeking refers to a behavior in which the student requests hints (clues) and explanations about the problem's solution, which will help the student solve the problems better. Based on classroom observations, help-seeking behavior is divided into three types: a) partial hints or clues, b) confirmation of previous performance, and c) receiving the answer to the problem from another person. Newman (2000) basically distinguishes between executive help-seeking and instrumental help-seeking (6). Individuals in executive help-seeking prefer that others solve the problem for them. In instrumental help-seeking, the requested assistance is in the field of clarifying problem-solving methods, which leads to mastery of the task and supports the individual's mastery in the future. Goal orientation is one of the motivational theories in which students' academic help-seeking is understood and conceptualized. Goal orientation means a coherent model of beliefs, attributions, and emotions that directs a person's behavior and shows different approaches, engaging and responding to tasks in progress situations. Midgley et al. (2000) considered three types of goal orientation, including mastery goal orientation, performance-approach goal orientation, and performance-avoid goal orientation (29). Mastery goal orientation is associated with academic self-efficacy, striving for success, problem assignment selection, perseverance in the face of difficulties, intrinsic interest in learning, application of deep processing strategies, and higher academic achievement. Such people believe that success can be achieved through effort. Performance-approach goal orientation reflects a focus on demonstrating competence and ability and how an individual's ability will be evaluated compared to others. This type of goal orientation is associated with trying to outdo normative performance, striving for the best, using social comparison criteria, and avoiding undesirable judgments about ability or low self-esteem. In performance-avoid goal, orientation is the fear of failure and seeming inadequacy that motivates people to strive. In other words, while the person does not want to be the best, he does not want to fail. In addition to the role of individual goal orientation on learning, the perception of parent goal orientation is also noteworthy. Research shows that when students think their parents emphasize new skills, deep learning, and personal growth, they are more likely to achieve these goals, and when faced with negative experiences, they use adaptive coping strategies. Conversely, when students feel that their parents emphasize scoring and displaying abilities, as well as avoid looking incapable, they are more likely to have a performance-approach goal orientation and use maladaptive coping strategies against negative academic experiences. The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors affecting students' help-seeking at two levels of student and parent goal orientation.

This study was a correlational study. The statistical population of female students in the first round of high school (seventh and eighth grade) in the academic year of 2019-2020 was studying in Yazd. For this purpose, 400 students in 16 different school classes were selected by multi-stage cluster sampling. Students completed the Ryan and Pintrich (1997) Help-Seeking Questionnaire and the Student and Parental Achievement Goal Orientation Questionnaire Midgley et al. (2000). Data analysis was performed in HLM software using the multilevel analysis method.

Findings from multilevel analysis and according to the unconditional model revealed that 27% of the variance of help-seeking is explained by family-level factors and 73% by student-level factors, which indicates sufficient variability of the dependent variable between different levels and applications. The multilevel analysis method is necessary and valuable for the data, but with the entry of student and family-level predictors and examining their relationship with the dependent variable, the rate of explanation in the complete model for student-level variables to six and family-level to 18 changed. However, the significance of the width tests from the origin and variance between class and within the classroom showed that help-seeking both before the entry of variables and after the entry of two-level variables has sufficient variability. At the student level, the variables of mastery and performance-avoidance goal orientation significantly predicted help-seeking (P<0.001). Nevertheless, the relationship between the performance goal orientation variable and help-seeking was insignificant. Parents’ mastery and performance goal orientation at the family level was a significant predictor for help-seeking at this level (P<0.001).

The student goal orientation and student perception of the parents’ goal orientation affect the students' acceptance and avoidance of help-seeking. In mastery goal orientation, the emphasis is on developing new skills and improving the level of ability. Students who choose such a goal for themselves in the face of complex learning tasks while increasing their efforts are more likely to benefit from help-seeking. When students think their parents emphasize new skills, deep learning, and personal growth, they are more likely to achieve these goals.  Due to the positive significance of parents’ mastery goal orientation, it is appropriate to provide conditions in families for students to emphasize mastery goal orientation and help-seeking in the face of complex learning tasks.

Ethical Considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
In order to comply with ethical principles, participants were informed before conducting the research that participation in the research is voluntary and that there is no coercion for it. Participants were reassured that their private and personal information would be protected and that the results would be interpreted if they wished. In case of any disturbance, the necessary instructions were provided to the participants to follow up. Participation in the research will not incur any financial burden for the participants. This study did not contradict the religious and cultural norms of the subject and society. This research is taken from a research project with the number 01/3522. In addition, the research method has been approved by the Ethics Committee (Ethics ID: 1399.029IR.UT.PSYEDU.REC).

Authors' contributions

The first author did study design, data analysis, and manuscript preparation, and the second and third authors did data collection and preparation.

Funding

This article is written at personal expense.

We sincerely thank all those who helped us in conducting this research.

Conflict of interest

The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social interaction and social communication and a range of restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped behavior patterns, interests, and activities (1). The onset of ASD symptoms usually occurs in symptoms of autism in infancy and toddlers before the age of 2 years. Although new theories have been developed to explain different features of ASD core impairments in recent years,  no neuro-psychological theory has been proposed to explain all ASD aspects satisfactorily. EFs, theory of mind (ToM), and weak central coherence cognitive theories have dominated neuropsychological research into ASD (10, 11). It is assumed that the theory of mind and weak central coherence could explain many of the deficits in social interaction and social communication associated with ASD (12). However, the EFs theory may provide the best explanation for the non-social aspects of ASD, such as repetitive behaviors and restricted interests (13). EFs are a set of cognitive skills defined as an “umbrella” term that includes goal-directed and self-regulatory cognitive abilities such as inhibition, shifting, working memory, flexibility, and planning (20). Additionally, EF is the only theory that acknowledges both the motor and cognitive characteristics of ASD (e.g., perseveration, insistence on sameness, repetitive hand flapping, and rocking) (10). Deficits in behavioral flexibility have been repeatedly documented in ASD. Behavioral inflexibility in ASD is characterized by circumscribed interests, restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs), pervasive impairments in social interactions and communication. Behavioral inflexibility refers to rigid behavioral patterns that contrast with the need to adapt to the changing needs of the environment. Behavioral Inflexibility is a potential dimensional ability that can explain the RRBs domains. RRBs are a hallmark of ASD (1). The RRBS manifests across echolalia, stereotyped behaviors, self-injurious behaviors, ritualistic behaviors, sameness behaviors, restricted behaviors, compulsive behaviors, and hyper- or hypo-reactivity to sensory stimuli.
Despite the findings of previous studies showing a deficit in the behavioral flexibility of people with ASD, determining the degree of predictability of each of the executive functions in the behavioral flexibility of children with ASD has not yet been studied. By identifying the cognitive underpinnings of behavioral inflexibility at an early age in people with autism spectrum disorder, early and specific interventions can be designed to improve the underlying cognitive function and thus increase behavioral flexibility. Indeed, clarifying the cognitive basis of behavioral flexibility in people with autism spectrum disorder can provide clues to its pathophysiology, improve clinical evaluation, and guide the development of new interventions to address behavioral flexibility as one of the hallmarks of autism spectrum disorder. The present study seeks to answer the question of what is the relationship between the components of executive functions and behavioral flexibility and can executive functions predict behavioral flexibility as one of the hallmarks of autism.

Participants included forty-five toddlers (34 males, 11 females; mean age=26.33 months; range 16–36 months) who were referred to the autism center. Each subject was diagnosed using comprehensive evaluation that included standardized testing, behavioral observation, and extensive parent reports gathered through interviews and questionnaires. Diagnoses were based on DSM 5 guidelines (1). All subjects were evaluated by an ASD specialist with a PhD in clinical psychology and at least one assistant (with at least a master's degree in clinical psychology). The diagnosis was made based on informed clinical judgment following interaction with the child, formal testing, and review parent reports and records review. Cross-sectional data were collected from mothers of toddlers. The behavior rating inventory of executive functioning-preschool version (BRIEF-P) and the behavior flexibility rating scale-revised (BFRS-R) was administered to mothers. To participate in the current study, parents completed an informed consent form for the child’s participation, executive functions and repetitive behavior measures (described below), and a demographic information checklist. Inclusion criteria included no known comorbid psychological and medical disorders or hearing and visual deficits.

The results of the Pearson correlation test revealed that the degree of behavioral flexibility in young children was correlated with inhibition, shifting, emotional control, planning/organization, inhibitory self-control, cognitive flexibility, metacognition, and the overall score of executive functions. Only working memory had no significant relationship with children's behavioral flexibility among executive functions. Regression analysis was used to evaluate the predictive role of executive functions of defects in the behavioral flexibility of young children. Executive functions predict 18%, 15%, and 21% of the variance of children's behavioral flexibility towards objects, environment, and total behavioral flexibility score, respectively.

This study's findings showed that all executive functions studied, except working memory, have a significant relationship with behavioral flexibility in young children. The regression analysis results also showed that executive functions had the ability to significantly predict part of the variance of flexibility in children with symptoms of autism spectrum disorder to the environment and objects. At the same time, this predictive was not significant in behavioral flexibility towards individuals. According to this study’s findings, it can be concluded that the ability to shift attention between different situations and tasks and inhibit thoughts and movements are essential cognitive predictions in the amount of behavioral flexibility in young children. Also, executive function theory has the ability to predict the behavioral flexibility related to non-social stimuli. Other cognitive theories such as ToM and weak central coherence should be considered to explain social and behavioral flexibility.

Ethical Considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
The present study observed ethical principles, including obtaining written consent in order to participate in the research, respecting the principle of confidentiality of the participants in such a way that the names of the participants were removed for confidentiality; adequate information on how the research was conducted was provided to all participating parents and they were free to leave the research process.

Authors’ contributionsBoth authors of the present study collaborated in the design and conceptualization of the study and its final approval. The article's first author was responsible for preparing and revising the manuscript.

No financial support has been received from any organization for this research.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all the families who helped us in this research.

Conflict of interest

The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Today, various cognitive models that represent the brain’s cognitive processes in areas such as psychology and artificial intelligence have been proposed that have found many applications. According to the objectives of these models, the most important of which is to study the characteristics of the brain in the process of performing excellent cognitive functions, rehabilitation of patients with cognitive impairments and intelligent machines, it is necessary to review and compare the proposed models carefully. Given that there are different cognitive functions, this research have considered these three models more based on the capabilities and models provided for memory, learning, and perception that are the core of cognitive functions. These models have been examined independently in research often before the capabilities of the models are studied in order to compare them. The present study will also point out the new and unique capabilities that the free energy model of the brain provides compared to other models. It is essential to note that, more or less, most models can be used in both the cognitive and artificial intelligence domains. However, the capabilities of these models differ in the applications they have for each domain. So that, for example, the model of semantic networks in terms of application in the field of artificial intelligence remains on the same premise In contrast, the free energy model of the brain has the ability to use various applications in artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology.

In this research, information related to three types of cognitive models was examined and compared by collecting library data. Among the models proposed by cognitive psychologists are the semantic network model, the ACT-R model, and the free energy model of the brain, which have been studied and compared here. In the process of producing news knowledge, information that is arranged in a hierarchy or relationship based on meaning or common features in semantic memory and  the form of a network consisting of concepts and communication links between them (semantic network) will produce declarative knowledge. Thus, semantic knowledge results from input perception and agent’s inference from these perceptions, which is stored in semantic memory as a communication network. This network causes semantic organization, which allows the agent to retrieve information. In the process of producing procedural knowledge, a set of possible actions is required to achieve a specific goal. This method is known for understanding the process of procedural learning as a pattern of sequential information processing. The ACT-R model combines some features of semantic networks and some features of sequential processing patterns and is presented in the form of a model based on the relationship between memory types. In this model, the relationship between declarative, production (procedural), and working memories forms the basis of cognitive processes. Environmental states cause different stimuli, and the presence of stimuli in the environment indicate hidden or revealed states. On the agent side, after receiving environmental stimuli that may have been subject to uncertainty or various changes until the agent perceived, there are a set of uncertain or probable perceived stimuli indicates the existence of states or concepts. Receiving sensory data and increasing entropy is a surprise. To avoid brain disorder, the surprise that results from inconsistent data with hypotheses in the brain must be dispelled immediately through free energy consumption. Accordingly, the free energy principle (FEP) shows that any adaptive change in the brain will minimize free energy. Two processes of perception and action do this minimization. Perception means changing expectations to reduce entropy and prediction error, and action means changing the agent’s configuration by affecting the biological agent in the environment in order to change the sensory stimuli and to avoid surprise or surprise. Combining perception and action makes it possible to adapt to new sensory stimuli. This process is called active inference.

The model of semantic networks is based on declarative memory, which allows the generation of semantic knowledge. The ACT-R model, one of the most practical and up-to-date models for examining human cognitive characteristics, has been proposed based on declarative and procedural memories, enabling the generation of declarative and procedural (skill) knowledge. Models of semantic networks and free energy require programming, while the ACT-R model is presented in the form of flexible and user-friendly software. The free energy model of the brain works very similarly to human inferences by generating a variety of knowledge that updates concepts and perceptions based on probabilistic inferences by Bayesian updates of previous brain hypotheses and by minimizing brain free energy. In this study, a proposal is made to use the free energy model of the brain and turn it into a model for the generation of declarative, procedural, and conditional (a combination of both declarative and procedural knowledge). This model has the ability to generate concepts and construct propositions based on the concepts produced and the relationship between them as a human agent. It can also teach procedural knowledge such as how to drive. Also, it can combine declarative and procedural knowledge to solve conditional problems such as solving mathematical problems. Although the ACT-R model also has the ability to generate procedural and declarative knowledge, due to insufficient ability to model perceptual similar to a human, it has limitations in the production of these two types of knowledge in the production of conditional knowledge. The two models of free energy and ACT-R offer the possibility of better explaining the different processes that lead to cognitive diseases. Also, by modeling diseases by these models, predictions can be made about cognitive rehabilitation. The free energy model shows some cognitive diseases more accurately so that in diseases such as schizophrenia, attention disorders, Alzheimer's, and memory impairments, it can suggest practical solutions to control or reduce each.

The present study examined three cognitive models of semantic networks, ACT-R, and the free energy of the brain. The capabilities of these models in various fields of cognition, artificial intelligence, cognitive rehabilitation, and modeling of cognitive functions were considered. Finally, it can be said that the free energy model has many advantages in modeling the human brain compared to other models. In future work, while using two models of free energy and ACT-R in areas such as diseases, significant progress can be seen. In diseases such as schizophrenia and attention deficit disorder, according to the inferential model presented by the free energy model of the brain, good success has already been achieved. Despite the complexities of the free energy model,  due to its more significant comprehensiveness, in providing a more accurate and calculated explanation of various cognitive functions in the brain such as perception, learning, attention, decision making, and more appropriate analysis of human cognitive diseases, this model can give much broader and more accurate results.

Ethical considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
This study was performed in a library method without participants or other people. There was no characteristic of not observing moral principles in interaction with people.

Funding

No financial support was received from any organization in conducting this study.

Author’s contributions

The corresponding author prepared this article, and other authors have contributed as a supervisors or advisors.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Professor Karl Friston, professor at the University College of London, for his guidance, submission of articles, and the results of his research, which have been very influential in this study.

Conflict of interests

There was no conflict of interest with any natural or legal person in this study.

Activities related to social responsibility can affect decision-making by sports consumers (i.e., fans), who may respond to such activities through increased pro-social behaviors. Athlete social responsibility activities can be further linked to a marketing goal (e.g., branding) or their psychological and personal connections. By complementing social science and consumer psychology research approaches, neuroimaging can thus provide marketers with information otherwise unobtainable via traditional marketing research methods (e.g., questionnaires, interviews, and focus groups). The primary purpose of this paper was to determine neural mechanism using electroencephalogram (EEG) underlying sport consumers’ responses to athlete social responsibility activities and examine the impacts on their pro-social behaviors. This study would thus help gain a novel approach and better understand psychological processes that underlie the aspects of sports consumer behaviors and contribute to the better revealing of factors that may influence variables such as consumer behaviors.

Social and control messages from famous and fictitious athletes were accordingly presented to a total number of 29 student participants while their EGG data were recorded. The study consisted of a presentation of 120 trials. The order of the trials was randomized. Sixty of the trials began with an image of one of the two individuals (Famous/Fictitious), and the rest began with a cue indicating the message type (Social/Control). EEG of the participants was recorded during the task. Participants’ task was to carefully look at the stimuli and listen to the messages. To ensure that participants paid attention to the stimuli, after every 12 trials, they were given a sentence to judge whether it was one of the presented messages or not. To further encourage the participants to pay attention to the stimuli, they were rewarded monetarily based on their performance on these questions.
The EEG data were then analyzed using the SPM v12 software. The analysis was conducted in two stages, (1) absolute brain activity, and (2) correlation of brain activity with pro-social behaviors in fans, as measured by the pro-social questionnaire.

The results revealed the higher activity of the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). The left-IFG was also more active than whenever the message was related to the famous athlete. In addition, bilateral-IFG was more active in response to the presentation of the social messages. These were also indications that the participants processed the messages by the famous person and social messages stronger than that of the fictitious athlete or control ones. Therefore, it could be argued that the participants treated the athletes and the messages differently and, in particular, paid much attention to the famous athlete and social messages.Similar to IFG, while SMG is part of the primary somatosensory cortex, it is also involved in language processing. SMG and IFG are also engaged in emotion and language networks. Bilateral-SMG was thus strongly activated in response to the messages by the famous athlete. This was another indication that the participants processed the messages associated with the famous athlete stronger than that of the fictitious one. The higher activation of both IFG and SMG in the socially relevant message was also an indication of the in-depth processing of the social messages. Considering that the participants were unaware of the purpose of the study, this higher activation was the evidence of intrinsic attention to socially relevant messages. Therefore, important messages could be framed in social contexts to have more effectiveness.Notably, the study results demonstrated a strong correlation between the activation of the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and the consumers’ pro-social behaviors towards the famous athlete (r=0.697, P<0.001). Furthermore, the findings provided evidence that such impacts were just pronounced for female participants than males (P=0.001). Besides, the neuroscience findings suggested that athlete social responsibility activities engage emotional and language processing brain networks stronger, provide an effective strategy to influence consumers’ pro-social behaviors, and forward practical implications for athletes and social scientists. Overall, these findings demonstrated that the promotion of athletes involved in socially responsible initiatives could produce generous benefits for society, alongside personal branding profits for athletes themselves.

Consumer neuroscience and neuromarketing research have started to study the effectiveness of marketing stimuli in influencing consumer responses towards brands. Such research has long been investigated through traditional market research methods. The current paper has shown that marketers, social scientists, and managers can directly investigate and measure consumers’ underlying intentions via neuromarketing methods. To authors' knowledge, the current study provides an extension to the literature of neuroscience study in the domain of sports social responsibility and in testing the relationship between sports consumers’ brain activity and their behavioral responses. The current research findings outline that athletes engaging in social responsibility activities can affect sport fans' behavioral intentions, such as pro-social behaviors. Athletes are increasingly being managed as brands, and their actions have an impact on fans' attitudes and behavioral intentions. Therefore, based on current neural results, athletes can use social responsibility activities as a solid variable to manage their brands and how consumers perceive their brand image. Further, the present study demonstrated how these initiatives positively influence consumer behavior with respect to their pro-social behaviors. Collectively the current study has a practical, theoretical, and methodological contribution to marketing literature, social science, and sports marketing literature.To the knowledge of the managers and marketers, the present study findings suggest that social responsibility activities are a valuable strategy for athletes to increase sports consumers' behavioral intentions such as pro-social behaviors. More importantly, this study's findings suggest that female consumers perceive athlete social responsibility activities more favorably. Therefore, athletes should implement social responsibility activities plans that could effectively link cause activities with sports consumers' pro-social behaviors. For instance, long-term partnerships with local businesses for sourcing and more comprehensive society development through locally developed school-based health programs. This may be particularly effective in contexts where either the athlete is female or where a league or a team has a predominantly female consumer base.Limitations bound this research that future research should aim to address. The current study identified involved brain areas using 3D source reconstruction of the EEG data. While 32 EEG electrodes can provide reasonably accurate data for this procedure, it would be informative to run similar studies using fMRI to provide a better spatial resolution and investigate deeper brain areas in further detail. Furthermore, future studies should seek to test the impact of more variables on moderating the impact of athlete social responsibility on sports consumer responses. This study was limited to assessing the impacts of gender as a binary approach. Future investigations along these lines will broaden our knowledge to identify more demographical variables like income, socioeconomic status, years of education, and age.

Ethical considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
The conditions of this study were designed in such a way that there was no physical or mental harm to the participants and by observing ethical principles such as obtaining informed written consent, respecting the principle of confidentiality of participants, providing sufficient information about how to research and their freedom to quit from the research process was performed. Also, the code of ethics for this research was received from the National Committee for Ethics in Biomedical Research (IR.IUMS.REC.1397.181).

Authors’ contributions

This paper has been written equally by all authors with the same contribution.

Funding

This research has no personal or organizational financial support.

Data collection was performed at the National Brain Mapping Laboratory of the University of Tehran, thanking the valuable cooperation of this laboratory.

Conflict of interest

The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Generally speaking, pictures are among the essential elements for transferring meaning and beauty. The present paper tries to explicate a theory for understanding the perception of pictures based on recent research in the philosophy of cognitive science and philosophy of mind. From a philosophical point of view, such a theory could be used for explaining the artistic, semantic, or sociological aspects of the pictures. However, this study is focused on showing how this theory is used for explaining aesthetic experience in the case of pictures.

This research is mainly based on the study of the original and primary written sources on this issue. Accordingly, this study has tried to obtain some specific results about the phenomenon of distributed attention and the pertinent role of this kind of attention in explaining the aesthetic aspect of perceptual experience through the methods of conceptual analysis and philosophical arguments in the ways, which are usual in contemporary philosophy of mind and cognition in the analytical tradition.

In terms of the things to which one can attend, two kinds of attention can be distinguished from each other. The first is called "attending to object", which means that while perceiving something, one's attention is directed just to an object as a whole and not to any of its properties. The second is called "attending to property" and refers to the kind of attention in which the subject's attention is focused on one of the properties of the relevant object. Each of these two kinds of attention can be itself "focused" or "distributed". In the case of focused attention, one's attention is directed to just one object or one property. In the case of distributed attention, by contrast, one is attending to several objects or several properties at the same time. According to these two distinctions, it can be easily seen that when one perceives something, four different modes of attention will be possible. Among these four modes of attention, the mode in which the attention is focused in respect of objects and distributed in respect of properties has a unique role in explaining the aesthetic experience. This kind of attention is referred to as "aesthetic attention" in this paper. The kind of theory that claims that aesthetic experience can be explained in terms of the aesthetic attention is usually called "the theory of aesthetic attention". Some experimental studies belonging to the field of cognitive science affirm that during the aesthetic perceptual experience, people usually use their aesthetic attention. It should be noticed that there is at least two other candidate theory for explaining the aesthetic experience. These two theories are usually referred to as "the aesthetic property theory" and "the intrinsic value theory", respectively. There is not enough space here for treating with these theories in detail, and therefore, the author just mentioned a common objection to these theories. The objection is that the aesthetic property theory and the intrinsic value theory cannot explain and accommodate the feature of aesthetic experience, which is called "lack of control". It means that one usually does not have any control over her aesthetic experience, and therefore, cannot manage the situation in the way that the aesthetic experience occurs predictably. Due to the fact that the theory of aesthetic attention is the unique theory that explains this lack of control, this study take it to be the most appropriate theory for explaining the aesthetic perceptual experience.
Nevertheless, the theory of aesthetic attention has another advantage in explaining the relevant properties of the aesthetic perceptual experience of a picture. To understand this advantage, first, it should be noticed that there are two different objects that seem to be represented in a picture. The first object is the two-dimensional object, which is consisted of the surface of the picture and is, therefore, usually called "the surface picture". The second object is the three-dimensional object which is supposed to be represented in the picture and usually is called "the depicted object". One of the essential questions in the philosophy of aesthetic perceptual experience is whether just the surface picture or just the depicted object or both are actually represented in a person's visual experience. The theory that is defended in this paper, is that both the surface picture and the depicted object are represented in visual perception. However, one can focus her attention on just one of them at a specific time. Thus, at a given time, both objects are experienced, but just one of them is attended.

According to what has been said in the main body of the paper, this study concluded that while perceiving a picture, two different aesthetic experiences may be realized. In the first case, one perceives both two-dimensional surface pictures and three-dimensional depicted object at the same time, but the person attends just the three-dimensional depicted object. In this case, one's attention is focused on the three-dimensional depicted object itself and is distributed toward its properties. This case can be taken as the appropriate model for understanding the conditions for the realization of aesthetic perception in the case of realistic pictures such as photographs and realistic paintings. In the second case, while perceiving two mentioned objects, just the person’s two-dimensional surface picture is attended. Here one's attention is focused on the two-dimensional surface picture itself and is distributed in respect of its properties. This case can be an appropriate model for explaining the realization of aesthetic experience in the case of the varieties of kinds of surrealistic pictures. Since people are usually more comfortable focusing their attention on the three-dimensional object and its properties, and therefore, are usually more apt to understand the aesthetic features of realistic pictures. This investigation may help non-specialist individuals in the art to put them in a position to experience the aesthetic features of surrealistic pictures as well as possible.

Ethical Considerations

Compliance with ethical guidelines
There are no ethical considerations in the research relevant to this study.

Authors’ contributions

The author of this paper has not received any contribution in the process of writing. 

No financial support has been received from any organization for this study.

The author appreciates the help of anonymous referees of the journal.

Conflict of interest 

This study did not have any conflict of interest.