فصلنامه روش شناسی علوم انسانی
پیاپی 109 (زمستان 1400)

The presentation of a universal and ahistorical criterion has always been of interest to rationalists in order to rely on it to evaluate theories and to provide a criterion for distinguishing science from pseudo-science. This effort, which has so far yielded no results, has always been criticized by relativists. Relativists who see any reliance on the evaluation and adoption of scientific theories, including observations, as being influenced by social factors and political powers. Bhaskar, contrary to the rationalist approach, does not believe in a objective criterion for distinguishing science from pseudo-science, with a layered description of nature, makes the knowledge of the world conditional on purposeful and creative action with it. He considers scientific activity to be based on theorizing about the mechanisms of the underlying layers and to test them in the laboratory, and to defend the rationality of science with his own approach. In this article, we refer to the rationalist and relativist debate and explain Bhaskar's rational account of scientific activity. We will also argue that Bhaskar's description of scientific activity, his attention to the causal powers of things, and his special interest in experiment, have at their heart a methodological code called experimentation, which provides both a position against relativism and makes it possible to defend the possibility of scientific progress.

Choosing any device of the axiomatic system can limit the level of our access to the real things and consequently our knowledge of the world around us to the principles of that device. This article tries to examine this issue from the perspective of the philosophy of science and shows how this issue has been addressed in the book “Theory of Games and Economic Behavior” by John von Neumann and Oscar Morgenstern. For this reason, several main axes such as "rationality", "determinism the system of a game", "equilibrium" and "the principle of ceteris paribus" are considered as principles in economics and how these axioms are placed within the system of Mathematical axiomatic system of game theory. Our general view is that one of the reasons that game theory cannot describe and analyze economic behavior, in general, is that it considers the world as a single-order system, and therefore the causal chain in this system is very long, while Self-organizing systems seek to create multidisciplinary organizations and are therefore willing to add to the complexity of the system for this purpose. Mathematics has a tool called isomorphism to compare order between two structures, but there is no such tool in economics, and so we often do not know that we are operating within two systems with different orders.

In order to enable the application of the ijtihad method in the humanities, this article explores the leadership style in Islamic management, using Islamic teachings and based on ijtihad analysis. Findings of this study show that ijtihad method is a combined method that is related to the combined knowledge of management from the branches of humanities and the method of Islamic leadership as one of the subjects of humanities in the field of ijtihad method can be analyzed. Considering the ijtihad method in Islamic teachings, there are two categories of propositions, in both of which there is a part of Quranic propositions and a part of narrative propositions. Some of the first category statements directly depict the ruler or leader's relationship with followers and how they interact with them; However, some of these statements are general speeches that can be applied to the style of absolute softness; Therefore, it can be said that this category of propositions implies softness and absolute friendliness, and the second category of Qur'anic and narrative propositions emphasizes the mixing of softness with intensity of action; According to these two categories of propositions, according to the principles of jurisprudence and jurisprudence in the ijtihad method, it is possible to be in the position of a combination of propositions wherever a group of propositions (arguments) imply an absolute subject, at the same time a group Other propositions imply the same subject, carried absolute propositions to the constraint; What is more, according to the rule of "the plural is important, the first possibility of my plan", the arguments that are absolute can be carried on, so it can be inferred that in the leadership style, both flexibility and intensity of action are necessary; Hence, the result of ijtihad analysis is that leadership in Islamic management is a mixture of "maximum flexibility and minimum intensity."

 The psychoanalysis of Jacques Lacan''s thought transcended the boundaries of his field, overshadowing the social, literary, and cinematic arenas. This process shows that psychoanalysis will no longer be reduced to an individual mentality and will continue to expand. Also, political science has come up with new theories that "the personal is political", and its concern is no longer just government, comparative politics, and the constitution. With the relationship between power and knowledge that came with Michel Foucault''s thoughts, we can no longer impose limits on politics. This article attempts to interconnect the gradual expansion of the two fields. This article tries to bridge the gradual expansion of the two disciplines and open a new horizon for political science. This horizon is associated with presenting a new narrative of society''s identity processes by investigating the acceptance or avoidance of other identities through the use of an Imaginary Order and Identification. Beliefs in the symbolic order will lead to the transition from formal political institutions to a system of signs to examine the subjugation of subjects and to explain identity conflicts. Contrary to structuralism, the use of real order, trauma, and fantasy lead to the acceptance that a revolution can be created. Finally, presenting a complex and delicate narrative of the issue of the subject-authority relationship while studying political phenomena can breathe new life into political theory and sociopolitical analysis.

Nowadays, the use of design thinking methodology in organization and management studies is increasing. In Iran within the field of organization and management, there is still a gap between thinking, formulation, and action, and the application of design thinking has been undeveloped conceptually and methodologically. The goal of this study is to explain discourses of design thinking, principles, models, and methods. The methodology of the study is based on a qualitative approach using secondary data content analysis and general qualitative research strategy. According to the study results, design thinking is rooted in two discourses of design and management, although with distinct applications. In this study, human-centered design, a combination of divergent and convergent thinking, co-creation, Iteration, and prototyping were identified as the five principles of design thinking in the field of the organization. In the following, the design thinking models of leading organizations were classified based on phases, stages and activities of design thinking and some of its most common methods were explained. Design thinking models are mainly process-based and can be summarized in four stages of exploration, creation, reflection, and implementation. Finally, research and operational suggestions for the use of design thinking in organizational and management problems with regard to the problem characteristics, level of analysis, and expected outputs are presented. These are unlimited to management science and will be used in other social sciences.

The rule of law of the social world and the taking of a reasoned position on the contribution of each is one of the fundamental issues of the philosophy of social sciences. The law-based approach with the model authority of the natural sciences and the perception of the human world as part of the realm of the natural world with distinctive features, the purpose of social science to explain the causal relationships between social actions / phenomena and the discovery of law in a way Knows deductive; While the rule-based approach, believing in the intentionality, meaningfulness, normativeness, contextuality and purposefulness of human actions, the goal of social science is interpretive understanding (empathetic or hermeneutic) or understanding of human phenomena and cognition and Inference knows the reasons of the actors. Collectively, they have considered the purpose of these sciences as combination, understanding and explanation or explanatory understanding; Others have reinforced the causal position, albeit with a different interpretation, by reading it causally, and their causal role in action. The present article seeks to discuss this deep and decisive conflict along with the principles, assumptions, effects, and conceptual results and methods of each of the preferred positions. The method of this study is as a collection, documentation and as an analysis and evaluation, the concept of mining and validation of the affirmative and affirmative evidence of each of the mentioned approaches.