مجله فنون ادبی
سال چهاردهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 38، بهار 1401)

The grammatical argument of contention means playing two functions by one word or phrase in Persian language sentences. There is ambiguity and disagreement in Persian grammar articles and books about contention or the appositional function. In the present study, the contention in Persian grammar has been studied and an attempt has been made to answer the following questions: 1) How is the contention in Persian grammar sources explained in different sentences? 2) What is the connection between the discussion of contention and the categories of ambiguity, suprasegmental units, deletion (reduction), and deep structure of language sentences? 3) With which grammatical issues and rules does the belief in contention in Persian language sentences lead to contradiction and conflict? The result of the research shows that in Persian syntax, each word or phrase plays only one function in the syntagmatic axis in the sentence, and the cause of the contention is the combination of the form with the meaning, and considering a compound sentence as two independent sentences, therefore the contention has interfered with the categories of deletion, compound sentence interpretation, ambiguity, and dependency. IntroductionIn Persian grammar articles and books, the discussion of contention or the appositional relation (dual function of a word or phrase in the sentence structure) has been raised according to the Arabic syntax and is generally defined as follows: contention is when one of the components of the word in a compound sentence plays a different function for each of the verbs. There is disagreement about the issue of contention in Persian grammar. Some of the factors that have caused this disagreement are: the newly established writing technique of Persian grammar, the imposition of grammatical rules and categories of other languages ​​in Persian, the combination of historical grammar with contemporary grammar, and so on. Due to this disagreement, the present study investigates the issue of contention in Persian grammar. The authors will continue the issue according to the hypothesis that there is no contention in Persian sentences and the belief in contention (i.e. two functions for a word or phrase in the sentence structure) will disrupt and ineffective other rules of Persian grammar, especially in teaching Persian grammar will create an unnecessary challenge. Materials and MethodsIn this research, first, the outlooks of Persian grammar scholars about contention are presented using a descriptive method. Then, using an analytical method, based on the evidence of the same sources, the contention in various sentences of the Persian language is examined and criticized. Finally, the analysis and suggestions of the authors in this field are presented. ResultsAn examination of the views of Persian grammar scholars shows that the category of contention has occurred due to ignoring the structure of the compound sentence, the category of omission, subordination, and emphasis on deep structure and sometimes the form of sentences. Accordingly, the authors suggest that based on the basic rules of grammar, including the definition of the sentence, one function of a noun and a noun phrase in the sentence, the principle of the economy (omission or reduction), and subordination, there is no need to raise the issue of contention in Persian grammar. Therefore, the evidence related to appositional relation or contention in Persian grammar sources can be described and explained based on other grammatical rules. ConclusionContention in Persian sentences has been discussed according to the syntax of the Arabic language and in a variety of simple, basic, and compound sentences. In the sources that have considered the occurrence of contention in Persian sentences, several factors underlie this view. For example, referring to the deep structure of the sentence, ignoring the post determiner of the type of explanatory relational sentence, considering a compound sentence as two independent sentences, and relying on the form and formal structure of the sentence have caused a word or group in the sentence structure to have two functions that sometimes are repetitive but the same and sometimes different from each other.Belief in the occurrence of contention in Persian sentences interferes with the categories of omission and its types. Contention also conflicts with the interpretation of the compound sentence and the resolution of the dependent clause (dependent) in the form of a noun or adjective phrase in a compulsory or optional function in the sentence. Also, the occurrence of contention in Persian sentences is not possible because each word or phrase in the structure of a larger unit (i.e. the sentence), has only one function. Since the compound sentence is also considered an independent sentence in Persian grammar, a separate analysis of the compound sentence as two independent head and dependent sentences is not necessary and justified. It seems that believing in contention in Persian is in some way imposed by the Arabic syntactic rules and insisting on matching another language category with Persian.

Bahare Ajam by Lala Tek Chand is one of the most important dictionaries in the second period of lexicography in the Indian subcontinent. The book consists of 19,729 entries and is more comprehensive in terms of words, compositions, allusions, and poetic proofs compared to the dictionaries of the former eras. The abundant use of sources and opinions for writing and commentary is a prominent feature of this dictionary. Furthermore, Tek Chand uses numerous poetic pieces of evidence in this reference book. His most important work in this field is the evidence selected from the Persian poetry until the time of Bahare Ajam.Due to the great attention of the users and Persian learners of the subcontinent, this book has been published several times in seven periods, and lexicographers frequently use this reference to write books. However, contemporary dictionary scholars have not paid much attention to this book and, quoting each other, have only highlighted the general features of the book. By knowing the methods of lexicographers before Tek Chand and his contemporaries in compiling his book, one can realize the value of this author's work, which is achieved through adequate knowledge of the structures that govern Bahare Ajam. The structure of the dictionary is not summarized in a way that explains why the entries are arranged and how they are arranged, while it covers definition methods, phonological methods, input controls, review of the citation system, and citation and critique methods in dictionaries.In fact, it is a dictionary consisting of macrostructures, microstructures, and middle-structures. The present study aimed to investigate the methods of selecting the entries in the macrostructure section of this dictionary. With the methods of bringing entries and recording pronunciation in the Bahare Ajam dictionary in the microstructure section (first part) and after stating the order, number, and percentage of each entry, it is shown that Tek selects an entry by adding a word and its related derivatives if used. Unlike today's dictionaries, the Bahare Ajam dictionary brings all these derivatives together based on four criteria, including entries based on one word/combination, the verbal and semantic affinity of two words/combinations, the verbal and semantic similarity of several words/combination, and entries and selection of proverbs.Although many of the book's entries (including the separation of sub-words and many poetic combinations) do not meet today's standards, the adoption of these methods could be attributed to the poetic nature of this dictionary. The Persian students of the subcontinent who have been learning Persian could see that instead of referring synonymous entries to each other, many similar verbal and semantic items are merged into one entry so that the user could see all or most of the poetic capacities of the words and combinations together without the need to use other dictionaries. This is an accepted method (especially among subcontinental lexicographers), which should not be measured and considered flawed by today's standards.In the second part of this research, the intervention regarding Bahare Ajam has been discussed. This book has numerous explanations under the entries mostly to guide the users about the type of the entries rather than identifying a specific word. Although most of these explanations are not considered to be definitions in the modern sense in classical dictionaries, they should not be overlooked and ruled out as definitions. We evaluated these explanations, which encompass several input materials. Tek uses 25 methods to bring in the entry material and identify its type. In this research, such methods were highlighted along with examples for each. In several cases, Tek introduces the entries based on usage, grammatical category, and literary features, while defining each word in some cases.Notably, some of these entries are ambiguous for today's users (e.g., the difference between the words ‘famous’ and ‘famous’ in Bahare Ajam) since no explanation has been provided in this regard. It seems that the ‘famous’ entries of Bahare Ajam had been the most frequently used words and expressions of poetry until the time of the ‘famous’ entries in this dictionary, as well as the most commonly used words and expressions among the users. Undoubtedly, the reference to later entries is one of the few drawbacks of the inclusion of a few entries, which is quite natural and justifiable for the users who have read Bahare Ajam thoroughly.In the third part of the research, the methods of recording pronunciation in the Bahare Ajam dictionary were discussed. For this reason, the evolution of the pronunciation recording methods in pre-Bahar dictionaries was initially discussed, and it was observed that the pronunciation of words is not recorded in many dictionaries due to rhyming, while in others, this is done by determining the movement of some letters or by homogenous words. This method has been widely used by lexicographers; for instance, most of the words in the Dictionary of Definitive Argument are based on concordant words to partially compensate for the book's lack of poetic evidence, which is also a good reason for the popularity of this reference book.In the evolution of pronunciation recording methods, in addition to determining the greater movement of letters and lexicography of the words, a word is mentioned if it has two or more pronunciations. In a few cases, words have become difficult for reasons related to the users or copywriters. The obsessive-compulsive disorder causes some sub-continental lexicographers to record the pronunciation of some non-compound words even in their dictionary of terms and combinations. Although Tek is aware of the previous methods, he has developed novel approaches in this regard with the help of Jahangiri, which has eventually advantaged his work. A slight difference is also spotted in addition to paying more attention to the phonology of words. Tek Chand adopts the methods of using a homogenous word by using short vowels and words to record the pronunciation of words. The first objection is the possibility that the user is unaware of the word ‘homozygous’, especially if the word ‘homogenous’ comes after the entry where the recording has been made.

Rhetorical criticism, as an approach to literary criticism, gained attention as knowledge on rhetoric expanded and books and research pieces on rhetoric were authored. However, there has never been a precise definition and a clear methodology for this approach of criticism. Previous attempts at defining rhetorical criticism have provided merely the general principles of rhetoric, while rhetorical criticism is a practical approach to literary criticism that, instead of using literary theories that are external to the text, focuses on the literary devices and figures of speech used in the text itself (e.g. meter, prosody, and aesthetic features). Rhetorical criticism, as an approach to literary criticism, does not have a long history in Iran, and it was only during the mid-Qajar period that, following the development of literary criticism in Iran, rhetoric was also taken to serve as a useful tool for text analysis. Having examined the related research pieces written on this subject, the present study attempts to provide a definition for rhetorical criticism and elucidate the methods of rhetorical criticism for text analysis. The present study is historical-analytical. Accordingly, in the first place, historical information on rhetorical studies and its background is collected. Then, based on the collected information, rhetorical criticism is defined.The definition of poetry criticism offered in some books on the stylistics of poetry is not unlike its definition in rhetorical criticism. In his book on poetry criticism, Truthful Poetry, Unmasked Poetry, Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob (1923-1999) maintains that “the poet himself” critiques his poetry “when he is weighing and assessing words and meanings in his poem, when he reviews and edits his work, when he talks about his method or his purpose and taste” (Zarrinkoob 1977, p. 9). In fact, poetry criticism is considered a method similar to rhetorical criticism where the poet seeks to explain his method and edit his work.Considering the existing books on rhetoric and the points raised so far, it can be stated that there is no clear definition for rhetorical criticism, and the existing definitions usually repeat only the same common explanations about what rhetoric is, that is, a discourse that appeals to the audience and is appropriate to its time and place (Ahani, 1959, p. 12; Rajaie, 1974, p. 21; Tajlil, 1991, p. 1; Homaie, 1994, p. 88; Shamisa, 1995, p. 45). In some studies, certain definitions have been provided for rhetorical criticism that are worthy of consideration. In the first instance, rhetorical criticism is defined as “a [a type of] criticism that is produced by examining the literary devices and imagery, or, in other words, devices that exist in our rhetoric” (Soleimani and Mehravaran, 2019, p. 169). In another definition, rhetorical criticism is regarded as a type of criticism that examines the impact of words on the audience (Arab Baferani, 2011, p. 146). From another perspective, rhetorical criticism is taken to be “an inquiry into how rhetorical elements are utilized in poetry and literature. […] The rhetorical approach was in fact an exploration of how rhetorical devices (eloquence, stylistics, and semantics) were implemented in literary discourse” (Mohebbati, 2011, 463-4).Considering the related studies on rhetorical criticism, it should be stated that the purpose of rhetorical criticism is to study how the knowledge of rhetoric is used in order to create meaning, establish themes, and influence the audience. It should also be noted that rhetorical criticism includes not only the traditional rhetoric, but also new rhetoric, and focuses on philosophical issues as well.Based on the definition of rhetorical criticism, two methods can be considered for this type of criticism. The first method is descriptive criticism which deals only with the surface structure of the work and does not go beyond an analysis of the frequency of literary devices. The second method is applied-analytic criticism in which the relationship between a text's rhetorical features and its structure and how it impacts the audience are examined. In this method of criticism, the process of influencing the audience and how rhetoric takes shape in the author’s mind are examined.Having examined the previous studies, the researchers came to this understanding that the topic of rhetorical criticism has somehow been neglected and considered to be self-evident (i.e. not requiring explanation) and its definition has usually been tied to rhetoric. It thus became clear for the researchers that insufficient care has been so far put into defining this type of literary criticism and the approach needs to be redefined on the basis of interdisciplinary studies. Accordingly, rhetorical criticism can be defined as the way rhetoric is used in order to create meaning in the text and shape the imagination of the audience. Such a definition of rhetoric encompasses both traditional rhetoric (prosody, rhyme, stylistics, eloquence, and semantics), and the new rhetoric (aesthetics, imagery, etc.).

Although the metaphor was first considered a deviation from the standard norms of automatic language and being solely confined to works of literature, it is now viewed as a basic characteristic of the human mind and accordingly ordinary usage of language by cognitive linguists. The fundamental belief is that human beings tend to comprehend abstract concepts in terms of more concrete ideas and manifest this correspondence in their language. Time is one of those abstract domains whose actual manifestation in ordinary and literary styles has interested cognitive linguists since the 1980s. The present study seeks to investigate the metaphors that have been employed by Yadollah Behzad Kermanshahi for the concrete presentation of time in his poetry. By doing so, not only the source and target domains of time-related metaphors will be exhaustively introduced but also the hidden layers of Behzad’s viewpoint toward time will be discussed in detail.The following three questions constitute the core of this study: 1) What are the main mechanisms for the metaphorical expression of time in Behzad’s poetry? 2) What are the underlying layers of these time-related metaphorical expressions? 3) How could the cognitive analysis of these metaphorical expressions lead us to a comprehensive understanding of Behzad’s conception of time? Yadollah Behzad was a major Persian poet whose works have placed him in the circle of famous contemporary literary figures both in his hometown, Kermanshah, and Iran. Although his works offer various potentials for conducting original research projects on the nature of thematic and metrical characteristics of Persian contemporary classical poetry, the available literature on Behzad’s artistic career seems still too weak.After presenting an introduction of our theoretical assumptions based on Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) pioneering work in the second section, we have allocated the third part to the cognitive treatment of our data, which have been taken from Behzad’s collections of Gol-e Birang and Yadgar-e Mehr. Going through the available examples of metaphorical expressions of time in Behzad’s selected works, we first pick those which we deem as more artistic and then try to elaborate on their internal constituents including their source and target domains and also mapping mechanisms. The results show that Behzad has employed 10 mega metaphorical schemata, each of which contains several micro metaphorical domains: Human-oriented Schema: This is one of the widely-employed schemata for the concrete manifestation of time in Behzad’s poetry. This general schema encompasses a number of micro metaphorical domains including human-oriented metaphors with negative imaginations, human-oriented metaphors with bifaceted imaginations, and human-oriented metaphors with positive imaginations. Animal-oriented Schema: As another generally-referred-to category for the linguistic manifestation of time in Behzad’s poetry, this schema includes two metaphorical domains of time as a crow and time as a horse. Comestible Schema: This domain is of very limited use in Behzad’s works, therefore we could not find a variety of subdomains for it. Place and Container Schema: As was the case with the animal-oriented schema, this category consists of two micro metaphorical domains including time as an encircled space, and time as a refillable container. Object Schema: This schema, too, encompasses two micro metaphorical domains of time as a countable object, and time as a colorable object. Book-oriented Schema: This schema is not of various types in Behzad’s poetry, therefore, we did not propose any micro subdomain for it. Natural Element-oriented Schema: As was the case with the previous mega metaphorical schema, this category is too limited in Behzad’s works to contain micro subdomains. Time as an Agent: In the previous parts, we were mainly concerned with physically-embodied mega schemata which were used to concretely portray time in Behzad’s poetry. Besides, in his attempt for metaphorical expression of time, Behzad has also referred to time as a natural agent from which certain phenomena evolve. Tangible Abstract Schema: Although this might seem paradoxical at first, this schema can get a convincing definition in Behzad’s artistic style. Instead of using purely concrete categories as the source domain, in certain cases, Behzad deliberately makes use of some abstract categories as the source domain for metaphorical expression of time. These domains, however, are less abstract than the “time” itself. Duration of Time: This schema is also of different nature than the classical physical schemata, which are employed for metaphorical expression of time. In this case, Behzad uses the very duration of time to concretely depict the abstract concept of “time”.

One of the main themes in the history of Persian literature is praise which has been used by poets in different ways. Rhetoric scholars have considered praise as a technique with unique characteristics. This research investigated the technique applied in the rhetorical works of the Persian language by using a descriptive-analytical method. There were a total of 13 arrays of rhetorical techniques assigned for praise themes, all of which were regarded as rhetorical semantic techniques. Among them, 3 techniques of Ebdā’ (innovation), Ta’kid alMadh bemā Yashbah al-Dham (emphasis on praising, which is like blaming), and Estedrāk (paradoxical praise) had greater rhetorical values because of the equivocalness they created in the reader's mind. Still, the technique of Ta’kid alMadh bemā Yashbah al-Dham had been further the focus of rhetoricians and mentioned in all the rhetoric books. Among the rhetorical works, the book of Badāye’ al-Afkār fi Sanāye’ al-Ash’ār mentioned more praise techniques than others (i.e. 9 techniques). What was clear in this regard was the rhetoricians’ diverse and sometimes disparate opinions in terms of naming, defining, and mentioning examples of the techniques.  IntroductionOne of the main themes in the history of Persian literature is praise which has been used by poets in different ways. As it appears from the history book of Sistan, the first Persian poem has also had a praise theme. Even one of the researchers believes that the history of praise poetry goes back not only to the time of establishing the courts’ power but also to prehistoric times. According to (Shamisa, 2004, p. 256) “praise poetry is somehow rooted in the prayers, praises, and hymns that have been written about the gods and their manifestations in ancient times". The subject of praise is one of the first critical themes in the field of literature and has been the focus of writers and critics. Qudāma ibn Ja’far considered praise as the first goal of poetry in his famous book entitled Naqd al-She'r (critic of poetry) written in the 4th century and has assigned particular characteristics and conditions for praise poetry. “Madiha (eulogy) has several parts as desired by the praisers and it is necessary to focus on the special meaning of each of these parts of praise” (Qudāma ibn Ja'far, n.d, p. 174). In this research,  various ways of praising were examined in the authentic rhetorical works, from Tarjomān al-Balāgheh (rhetoric translation) to present a new look at rhetoric. The main goal of the present study was to find out what techniques the court poets had innovated in order to express praise themes and how successful they had been in creating literary beauties. The basis of this research was referring to Persian rhetorical works though in some cases, the Arabic rhetorical scholars’ opinions were cited as well. In most of the Persian praise poems, the praised one was one of the persons related to the court, especially the king. For this reason, there were several praise techniques that were dedicated to praising this group.  Methodology This research uses a library approach and a descriptive-analytical method. It could be considered the first attempt made in the field of categorizing, criticizing, and analyzing the ways of praising in Persian rhetoric.  Discussion and ResultsDue to the importance of the subject of praise in the history of Persian poetry, poets have used various methods to praise the praised ones. Rhetoric scholars have considered each of these methods as a separate technique and mentioned some evidence for each of them. It should be said that in this study, only the techniques related to praise themes were taken into account as there were some techniques, which were dedicated to praise and the poets could also express other themes through them. For example, San’at Moghāyira (technique of paradox), which was mentioned in Dorreh Najafi, was believed to be applied for both praising and blaming; or the technique of ‘Edmāj’ that was mentioned in the book of Abda’ al-Badāye was defined as “a technique by which the speaker addresses another issue during conveying his meaning of praise or blame or any other meanings, whether it is related to the first issue or it is of a different kind” (Gorkani, as cited in Ghasemi, 2010, p. 38). Such techniques were not regarded in this research. On the other hand, the characteristics and styles of some techniques, such as Towsim (marked praise) or Hosn-e Takhallos (well-delivered praising) are only used in poetry (although praise has been used in both poetry and prose). Therefore, since rhetoricians’ dominant focus in providing the related evidence has been on poetry, the approach taken in this study was based on poetry. The analysis of rhetorical works showed the following 13 arrays or techniques to present praise themes, : 1) Ta’kid al-Madh bemā Yashbah al-Dham (emphasis on a type of praise, which is like blaming); 2) Madh-e Movajjah (excusable praise); 3) Ebdā’ (innovation); 4) Towsim (marked praise); 5) Ettefāq (coincidence); 6) Etterād (successive ancestral praising); 7) Estedrāk (paradoxical praise); 8) Madh-e Mothannā (doubled praise); 9) Tarjih (preference); 10) Hosn-e Takhallos (well-delivered praise); 11) Tasallof (adulatory praise); 12) Jam’e Mo’talef va Mokhtalef (collective and distinctive praise); and 13) Do’ay-e Ta’bid (eternal blessing). Of course, some of these arrays were more focused on by rhetoricians.  ConclusionOut of the rhetorical techniques, 13 techniques were found to have been used by the speakers presenting praise themes. All these techniques were considered to be rhetorical semantic techniques. Among them, the 3 techniques of Ebdā’, Ta’kid al-Madh bemā Yashbah al-Dham, and Estedrāk had more rhetorical values since they created equivocalness in the reader's mind. Accordingly, it could be claimed that the speakers had added to the treasure of rhetorical techniques in the Persian language by presenting praise themes while creating literary beauties. These 13 techniques were different from those like Edmāj or Moghāyereh (contradiction), which were associated with other themes besides praise. Two techniques of Ta’kid al-Madh bemā Yashbah al-Dham and Madh-e Movajjah were found to be used by rhetoricians; the former was mentioned in all the rhetorical books and the latter was used except in Al-Mo’jam. On the other hand, the 3 techniques of Madh-e Mothannā, Tarjih, and Tasallof were mentioned only in one book. Among the rhetoric scholars, Wā’ez Kāshefi, the author of the book Badaye’ al-Afkār fi Sanāye’ al-Ash’ār paid more attention to these techniques by mentioning 9 of them. The least attention was paid by Shams Qais Rāzi, who mentioned only the 2 techniques of Towsim and Ta’kid al-Madh bemā Yashbah al-Dham. In the meantime, what seemed to be more prominent was the rhetoricians’ disparity of opinions for naming and defining these techniques. For example, they mention even 5 terms for the technique of Madh-e Movajjah.

Human knowledge is swiftly moving towards independence and specialization. One of the requirements of independence is having a special, systematic, and creative language and discourse. Literary criticism, as specialized knowledge, due to this necessity, turns upon the creation of new terms. However, the dependence of literary works on language, emotions, and mentalities, the differences, and the unique linguistic and cultural capacities of each nation require researchers to develop terms appropriate to their native works in order to understand and evaluate their literary works comprehensively. In the present study, by explaining the necessity of terminology in criticism and the scientific principles of terminology, we have examined the terms suggested by Shafii Kodkani in literary criticism from various aspects. The results of the research show that since these terms have emerged by combining classic native knowledge and new literary ideas and are made based on the structural and aesthetic capacities of the Persian language, they have been established and used widely in the discourse of literary criticism and give us hope for the formation of native literary criticism.IntroductionThe Persian language, like other languages, has characteristics that many literary techniques and devices of art are based on them. Therefore, criteria related to literary criticism should be formed in accordance with the aesthetics and poetics of this language to evaluate its special capabilities.During more than fifty years of research, investigation and authoring of numerous works, and theorizing and creating terms in the field of literary criticism, Shafi'i Kadkani has contributed significantly to the growth of native literary criticism. Many of Shafi's terms in literary criticism, looking at the new principles of criticism and literary theory, are based on the special structure of the Persian language. The terms are essential for the Persian language and literature. They free the literary researchers and “leave a deep vortex of repetition, interference, superficiality, ignorance and sometimes theorizing, and sometimes a feeling of false exclusion and a generalization about one's own heritage” (Fotoohi, 2016, p. 12). Materials and MethodsIn this qualitative research, we have tried to investigate the critical terms in Shafi'i's works and his ideas in Persian literature with a descriptive-analytical method and a comparative approach. ResultsIn this research, by carefully studying the works of Shafifu and extracting terms of literary criticism, we examined terms considering two components: 1) scientific foundations, and 2) the rhetoric of making terms. In Shafi'i's works, in a general view, the terms are based on the foundations of new linguistics, especially the theories of formalism. Besides, they have been influenced by the scientific foundations of other branches of human sciences such as sociology, psychology, and analytical philosophy. In addition, factors such as secularizing or making concepts conventional, providing precise definitions and explanations of each term, modeling and systematizing them, classifying some concepts, avoiding ideological bias, and paying attention to the text have also strengthened the scientific aspects of these terms.Apart from the above technical fields, Shafi'i's poetic style and artistic taste and its combination with a scientific view have led to the construction of terms that are mostly based on similes and metaphors or synesthesia that help both beauty and a clearer understanding of the meaning of the term. Two factors are the greatest strengths of these terms: 1) practicality and modeling, and 2) updating of old literary knowledge based on scientific foundations and new approaches of criticism, and also practical adaptations of new theories of criticism, especially formalistic, structuralism and hermeneutic criticism.Shafi'i terms can be placed in three categories. The first category includes innovative terms that are made largely based on individual ideation, analysis, and reasoning. These terms rely on a coherent theoretical system and numerous experimental and practical examples and evidence. Second, adapted terms that are generally derived from the important contemporary currents of literary criticism especially formalism, structuralism, sociology of literature, hermeneutics, as well as classical Persian and Arabic literary criticism, including the opinions and ideas of people such as Gorjani and Jahiz and to some extent critics of Indian style.  The final category includes translated terms that are presented in his works.In the study of the construction of terms, it can be said that these terms are either a) taken from other fields of knowledge such as agriculture, folklore, and the fields of natural or technical  sciences and or they are old and familiar terms that have been reconstructed in a new meaning. ConclusionShafi'i is one of the few contemporary theorists who contributes to the localization of literary criticism by creating a terminology system based on scientific methods and placing them in the discourse of Persian literary criticism. His terms are placed in three categories of invented, redefined, or adapted and translated terms. While trying to revive the neglected theories of old criticism and rhetoric, they are largely based on new scientific methods, especially linguistics, philosophy, and sociology of literature. Also, in their construction, eloquence and rhetoric have been applied simultaneously and the use of literary techniques such as similes and metaphors have given them more clarity, simplicity, and comprehensibility.Among other issues, the precise definition of terms, the presentation of numerous evidence and modeling, the observance of impartiality, and a purely literary view and applied classifications have made such terms more and more popular among experts. The importance of these terms more than anything is that since they are based on the study of Persian language works and mastering them, they fully adapt to the structure of the Persian language. In addition, they have been planned according to accurate measurement and transparent criteria in this field, so by collecting these terms, we can hope for the formation of native academic literary criticism in Iran.

Before the advent of linguistics, metaphor was considered only a feature of literary language, especially poetry, which had little to do with other linguistic forms. But cognitive studies of metaphor have changed this traditional view.In this research, after introducing the cognitive approach to metaphor, a conceptual metaphor in the History of Jahangosha is examined. There are many conceptual metaphors in the History of Jahangosha Jovini including concepts of agree, calamity, annihilation, negligence, doubt, luck and happiness, religion, guidance, and forgiveness which are manifested with the target areas of egg, whip, sword, sleep, fire, darkness, Homa, candle, light, and skirt. In these metaphors, Jovini has used almost identical mapping between two domains of organ and purpose. The reason for this is the conditions prevailing in the author’s time. Jovini also used the four elements of water, soil, wind, and fire in materializing abstract concepts. The reason for this can be considered the Mongol invasion because the Mongol invasion brought nothing but destruction.One of the new theories in cognitive linguistics is the concept of ‘conceptual metaphor’. In this theory, linguistic knowledge is not separate from thinking and cognition. According to cognitive linguists, meaning is based on conventional conceptual constructions. In this way, semantic constructions, like other cognitive domains, reflect the mental categories that human beings have shaped through their experiences. In Likoff and Johnson's research, it has been emphasized that metaphor is a fundamental element in our categorization of the outside world and our thought processes” (as cited in Safavi, 2013, p. 367).By applying this theory, one can measure the metaphorical mentality and attitude of a person about various matters, and by examining the various concepts that are conceptualized with a central mapping, one can find out his intellectual and metaphorical system. “Scientists believe that man subconsciously seeks to find commonalities in heterogeneous subjects in order to understand things on the basis of these commonalities” (ibid., p. 325). The processes of human thought are largely metaphorical. This is what is meant when it is said that the conceptual system of man is metaphorically organized and defined in metaphorical language. Metaphors appear precisely in the form of linguistic expressions that are present in the human conceptual system (Likoff & Johnson, 2020, p. 12). The cognitive linguistic perspective believes that metaphorical concepts are based on a variety of human experiences, including correlation in experience, different types of non-objective similarities, common biological and cultural roots, and possibly many others. Metaphors have implications that reveal or highlight them and integrate certain aspects of our experiences. A metaphor may be the only possible way to reveal and coherently organize aspects of our experiences. Metaphors may create realities for us, especially social realities. So, metaphors can be a guide for our next actions. Instead, actions increase the power of metaphors to consolidate our experiences. From this perspective, metaphors can be predictors who realize themselves (Likaf & Johnson, 2017, p. 259).In this research, the author intends to examine the conceptual metaphors in the History of Jahangisha. The concepts that are included in the form of metaphorical definitions are those that correspond to the natural forms of experience. Issues such as love, time, attitude, understanding, discussion, work, happiness, health, dominance, status, and moral principles are natural forms of experience in culture. These are concepts that need to be defined metaphorically because our daily practices are not clear enough.Every culture must provide a more or less successful way of interacting with its environment in order to be able to accept and change that environment. In addition, every culture must define social reality in which people have roles that are meaningful to them and through which they can function socially. Social reality, defined by culture, affects the kind of perception of material reality. Much of our social reality can be understood in metaphorical terms. Therefore, it can be said that metaphor is basically a social necessity. Metaphor is not formed in the mind of an individual alone but is the nature of a collective metaphor. After it is necessarily formed in the society, it is expressed due to the need of the speaker for this kind of discipline, and the purpose of its application is to create a special space in the mind of the listener. An atmosphere that has very strong cognitive and emotional aspects can bring the listener's mind closer to the speaker's mind and create a common ground. In this case, it can be said that the use of metaphors goes beyond the scope of an immediate need and its purpose is to open a way to the themes that the metaphorist seeks to convey to the listener. Therefore, making the concepts that are in the heart of life tangible is one of the main necessities in any society, because by metaphorically defining the concepts, they can be made from abstract to objective and tangible and provide the way for the realization of these concepts. In the History of Jahangisha Jovini, there are many conceptual metaphors, including concepts, calamity, annihilation, negligence, doubt, luck and fortune, religion, guidance, and forgiveness, which are manifested in the target areas of egg, whip, sword, sleep, fire, darkness, Homa, candle, light, and skirt. In these metaphors, Jovini has used almost identical mapping between the two domains of origin and purpose, and the reason for this is the conditions prevailing in the author's time.