فصلنامه نگره
پیاپی 62 (تابستان 1401)

Copying is one of the basic principles and important steps in the traditional teaching of Persian painting. In this imitation style, the artist has to be practicing and imitating the paintings of the previous masters, and can be allowed to manipulate or capture some elements in his own style after acquiring the necessary skills. This activity is the most common in all of the Persian painting schools and periods, and is described in the primeval treatises. Reza Abbasi, the prominent painter of the Safavid era and the founder of the Isfahan Painting School, has been copying the works of Kamal al-Din Bihzad, the prominent painter of the Timurid era, in a period of his artistic activities (1019 - 1029 AH / 1611 - 1621 AD). According to the latest researches, these works include four drawings with different themes. Of these four paintings, only three works included human figures, and the other one was specifically with the theme of the bird and flower. The total figures of these three paintings in the works of Kamal al-Din Bihzad and Reza Abbasi are 19 figures. Four human figures (traveler man, rural man, poet and Majnoun) were evaluated in order to investigate the formal diversity of the figures. These samples are selected by non-probability (selective) sampling method and the criterion of selection was the visibility of the whole body in the paintings. Although these paintings were signed by Reza Abbasi, that shows the originality of these works, unfortunately researchers have not paid attention to these works. Therefore, comparative study and analysis of these paintings with the works of Kamal al-Din Bihzad is very important in order to find out the influence that Reza Abbasi has taken from the previous well-known painter. Despite the other visual elements, figures have been drawn in a non-imitational way, and they were different from Reza Abbasi's figurative painting in comparison to Bihzad’s drawings. Therefore, the subject of this paper is the analytical study of the influence of Kamal al-Din Bihzad's works on Reza Abbasi's paintings, and the aim is to recognize the effects that Bihzad's paintings have had on Reza Abbasi's works. Also, the authors tried to answer this question: Which parts of Reza Abbasi's paintings have been influenced by Kamal al-Din Bihzad's works? This study was carried out through a descriptive - analytical method with a comparative approach. The information was collected through a documentary (library-based) method. The study focused on four sections: theme, form, position and the location of the figures in the composition. First, all figures were categorized based on their topic, then their proportions were measured based on the length of each head, and in the next step, the position and the way the figures had been arranged in the works were evaluated.This study shows that Bihzad's influence on the thematic diversity of the figures in Reza Abbasi's works is limited to public figures. It is possible to assume that the sudden change in his behavior and temperament in the second period of his artistic life, in which non-courtly tendencies were at a very high level, laid the groundwork for Reza Abbasi's tendency to select and draw public figures from Bihzad's works. Bihzad's influence on Reza Abbasi's figures is relatively less in terms of the visual qualities, and Reza Abbasi has acted in his own way in cases such as the proportions of each limb and each part of the body, elongation and height. On the other hand, Reza Abbasi has been completely loyal to Bihzad's works in the representation of the movements of the figures, curvature and flexibility in the limbs as well as the location of the figures in the composition. In these examples, the figures are in three positions: standing, sitting and lying, and the shape and position of the bodies are depicted the same as Bihzad's works. Another Bihzad's influence on Reza Abbasi is the angle of the display of the upper and the lower parts of the body as it rotates from the waist up to one side. This curvature of the body in Reza Abbasi's drawing has led to variety and movement in the limbs of his figures. The location and arrangement of the figures in Reza Abbasi's works is almost the same as that of Bihzad. The placement of the figures in the most important points of composition shows the emphasis and importance of the human beings. The importance of the human figure in Reza Abbasi's works is such that in copying Bihzad's works, he reduced the frame of the work up to the figures, or removed secondary figures and limited visual space to the main figure.

One of the most important mystical themes are the authorities and stages of conduct. The degrees of conduct are the result of mystical reflections and the discovery and intuition of the Quranic truths and efforts of the seeker. These mystical themes in the period of Iranian-Islamic painting, and especially in the thought and opinions of Islamic rulers and ministers in the Timurid and the Safavid periods have had many reflections, according to which a number of books have been written and decorated with mystical themes and narratives. Among the existing books, Divan Hafez has also been painted and arranged. In this study, two intended paintings of “Dance of Sufis” by Kamaleddin Behzad and “Worldly and Otherworldly Drunkenness” by Sultan Mohammad have been studied in terms of degrees of conducts. The present article aims at examining the manifestation of authorities of conduct in Islamic mysticism and its effect on the illustrations of the two paintings in question. The present study seeks to answer the question: How do the two paintings in question, which are illustrated with a mystical theme, manifest the authorities of mystical behavior in the heart and states of the figures? The research method is descriptive-analytical and the data collection method is based on library and electronic resources. The method of analysis is qualitative. The findings of this study suggest that the two desired images in terms of the manifestation of mystical authorities of conduct, that are the manifestations of deeds and traits and intrinsicality of God, have been illustrated regularly and by visualizing these manifestations in Islamic mysticism and its emergence in the process of figurative states from the lowest position to the highest degrees, and bear a hidden message like reaching from the carpet to the divine throne, and finally reveal the degree of Fana Fi-Allah (annihilation in God). Sufism, which is the esoteric aspect of Islam, is distinct from the outward appearance of Islam, since direct spiritual conduct and divine truths differ from the doctrines that appear in terms of a particular human component in the individual order. Islamic mysticism is one of the sciences related to the higher world and the kingdom that sometimes is a manifestation of human dignity and high degrees of humanity, and this dignity can be seen and experienced in many different ways. The great scholars of science and the masters of intuition have stated many degrees of knowledge in the mystical and divine sciences. In fact, these degrees can only be achieved by conquering the physical aspects in the stages of conduct. These aspects appear in various forms such as vulgarity, greed, and so on, and the seeker, to get rid of their chains and straps, guided by the great teachers and high mystics, relies on the invocations that break him free of the world of evil, and lead him to the kingdom of God. He goes through difficult stages and receives authorities during mystical conduct until the essence of his existence passes through the stage and the steps of the kingdom and slowly enters the world of the Lahout. This degree of the mystics’ conduct is called the safe stage, because it embraces chastity and purity, and the humble and modest ones are going to meet their God.Throughout history, mysticism, and especially Islamic mysticism, has played an important role in art and decorations. Painting is one of the decorative arts that in its thematic and even its symbolic designs has expressed an aspect of Islamic mysticism, and with its elements of motifs and colors that appear as a mystical speech, has taken his audience to a journey from the low world of Nasut to the inner world of Lahout. The art of painting has undergone a great transformation with the arrival of Islam in Iran and has followed the path of mysticism along with the mystic poets, since most paintings have followed a theme or a poem in the context of their subject matter and have illustrated the story according to the mystical meaning of the poetry verses, while some of them have only used the mystical themes of their time to depict events. This art with a worldly and colorful appearance is a picture of the imaginary world that tries to reflect the heavenly paradise as well as the Lord's presence by the emergence of mystical content and spiritual states. To this end, the artist, with a certain degree of certainty and the help of mystical sciences, has devised a general and partial composition of the painting, and displays its motifs in pursuit of the supreme goal of mysticism and attainment of sincerity, and ultimately, the degree of the Hagh al-Yaghin. The artist has transformed from the inside during the illustration, and standing in the position of human elements, appears in a mystical state within the picture and refines the details.

The bath houses are one of the most important buildings in Islamic architecture. Literary works have created an important treasure for dealing with structural and semantic issues in the works of bath houses. There is an emphasis on this claim. In this paper, in order to review the structure and decorations of them in the paintings, we have studied and compared each one. The main goal of this study was to analyze the structure and decorations and strategies used in the paintings of the bath houses. In this regard, these questions are discussed: What is the structure of elements and decorations in the paintings of the baths based on documents and historical texts? Is the evolution of the illustrations between the spatial structure and decorations of each section based on the information that the pictures give us?  The research method is descriptive - analytical and data collection method is library-based. In the part of the theoretical foundations of the study, four books of Nizami Ganjavi’s Makhzan ul-Asrar, written by Nizami Ganjavi, Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, Sadi’s Majalis al-Oshaq and Jami’s Haft Orang have been studied. After classifying the illustrations in terms of the intended components to facilitate reading of the images of the baths, by examining each of the works of painting in each of the literary texts, it can be concluded that the illustrations have a developmental course according to different eras of drawing. This trend is more focused on one or two spaces by adding different spaces to the painting. This process has been changed in later years by adding decorations and more details to the painting; so that the composition of the painting has not changed, but attention to the decorations and events of the margins is highlighted. In the following stage, this linear trend of the painter has been illustrated by choosing a space as illustration. One of the important points in the design of the bath space is the regularity in the interior, and hierarchy of spaces. The hierarchy for entering dirty while exiting tidy and clean is considered completely in the hierarchy of the illustrations. All spaces such as outer space or shape have regularity and are completely drawn, which are clearly seen in the illustrations. The architecture of graphic baths has spatial commonalities such as Garmkhaneh, Sarbineh, treasury, Miandar, roof and Gavro, and the Garmkhaneh and Sarbineh as the main spaces for presence of people, represent the most illustrative events among other components and spaces of graphic baths. In paintings, paying attention to proportions is one of the key points which expresses the significance and importance of space. In paintings, the greenhouse space is often depicted larger than other existing spaces and generally has symmetrical and square proportions, whereas the interior plans of the Garmkhaneh and the upper room are depicted in an octagonal shape. In addition to the evolution of painting, we are also witnessing the evolution of the ability of the painter, who in recent centuries has been able to depict all the spaces of the bathhouse. The use of different materials has made the paintings in this century different from the available paintings of the previous centuries. As mentioned before, the use of various colors is very important and also the color blue has been used more often in tiles and Garmkhaneh spaces and flooring. Apart from the pictures of Majalis al-Oshaq, which also depict the exterior space of the bathhouse, we rarely see the outside space of the bathhouse other than the roof of the bathhouse; and it is also related to the recent centuries. The results of this research show that the eleventh century can be considered as a turning point in the display of structural and decorative dimensions among the illustrations, despite the fact that there are commonalities in the paintings and ornaments in the paintings and ornaments of each of the illustrations that in the present structural dimension have many similarities to aspects of the ornaments. The structure in bathhouse paintings is expressed as features such as "form” and “shape", "proportions", "composition" and “decorations” as the basics of "geometric form", "color painting" and "painting materials". The evolution of the illustrations regarding the perspective, the excessive show of ornamentation and the distance from the patterns of previous centuries has been promoted, and has led to the creation of some innovations in the decorations. Based on what has been said about the study of drawings and their comparison in the temporal dimension and aspects of composition and proportions, colors and materials and geometric patterns, it can be inferred that in general, physical and functional similarities are more than their differences. Also, in the course of the linear evolution there is more commonality in the dimension of components and decorations and details than the structural and formal dimension.

Geometric patterns are one of the most important features of Islamic monuments that are formed based on Islamic codes and concepts. The use of geometry in arrays and works of art and Islamic architecture has been a gateway to the knowledge of unknown universal codes, the manifestation of which is derived from the concepts of God. Soltan Mohammad Khodabandeh (Oljaito), Ghazan Khan's brother, was born to an Uzbek father and an Armenian mother. During his lifetime, Oljaito chose different religions until he was finally influenced by the Shiite religion and became very devoted to the Shiite dynasty, so much so that he decided to build a great tomb with various sacred decorations of Islamic art in Zanjan (the capital of Iran during the Ilkhanate) and move the bodies of Imam Ali (AS) and Imam Hussein (AS) from Najaf and Karbala to that place. However, after completing the construction, he faced strong opposition from the imitators of that time and could not achieve his long-held dream, and at the end of his life, he turned to the Sunnis again. After him, during the reign of his son, who had a special devotion to the Sunnis, the interior decorations were tailored to his beliefs, which had the color and scent of the Sunni concepts. The construction of the historic city of Soltaniyeh began during the reign of Arghun Khan, the Mongol ruler, and developed during the reign of Soltan Mohammad Khodabandeh as one of the great Islamic cities. By the order of Oljaito, the dome of Soltaniyeh located in Zanjan city was introduced in 704 AH, in the city of Soltaniyeh, the capital of the Ilkhans at that period, and in 712 AH the tomb of Oljaito was erected in the central core of the city of Soltaniyeh by his order. It is known as the tallest building and the largest brick dome in the world and one of the most beautiful historical buildings in the world, which is the manifestation of the glory and art of Islamic architecture and the objective manifestation of the evolution of Iranian architecture. The height of the dome is 48.50 meters; the diameter of the opening is 25 meters with 1.60 meters thickness, constructed by the double-shell technique. The purpose of this study is to interpret the concepts and geometric codes hidden in the decoration and architecture of Soltaniyeh Dome based on an analysis of Islamic concepts from the perspective of Quranology, Hadithology, Numerology, Abjad, Al-Jafr, Asma al-Hassani along with symbolism of geometric shapes and color in decoration and architecture. Also in the analysis of golden proportions of the building, 2020 PhiMatrix 1.618 Pro, Atrise Golden Section 2018, 2018 Golden Ratio and PhiMatrix Golden Ratio Design 2020 software have been used. For this purpose, the research questions are: 1- In what geometric forms are the meanings and concepts used in the decoration and architecture of Soltaniyeh Dome reflected in the arrays of this monument with the aid of numbers? 2- What is the role of geometry in creating spiritual connections between material, mystical worlds and creating a single message in the decorative arrays of Soltaniyeh Dome 3- The effectiveness of the arrays can be classified into how many levels? The research method was historical-interpretive. The method of data collection was library-based and fieldwork, using comparative-analytical data analysis subsequently. The results show that the concepts and meanings are reflected in the arrays in physical forms (in the form of buildings and the hierarchy of formation of spaces), religious symbols (such as Shamseh, celestial bodies), linear shapes (divine names and verses), and colors (to create a sense of space). The use of sacred numbers, symbols and religious forms in the spatial and physical structures of the building has caused a spiritual connection between the earth (material) and light (spiritual) world. Monument arrays are also categorized into 5 levels: geometric shapes (square, octagonal, and circle), numbers (4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 23, 36, 40, 42, 60, and ... 110), holy names (Allah, Mohammad (PBUH), Ali (AS)) and Sunni religious concepts, use of spaces, Quranic verses and hadiths in the form of Bannai script. Also, the results of the research show that all the components of the Soltaniyeh Dome are based on Islamic concepts that are appropriate to its use, which was a place for the burial of Imams. In fact, the master artists and architects of Soltaniyeh Dome, with full knowledge of various sciences such as geometry (complete knowledge of formal and mystical concepts of geometric shapes), mathematics (recognizing sacred numbers and their use in structural elements), occult sciences, Abjad, Al-Jafr, proportions, symbolism and chromology, have tried to create a sacred building that can be the property of God and the eternal court of the Shiite Imams.

Throughout the history of pottery and among all the methods of pottery decoration, lusterwares, because of their shine and their gold-like reflection, have always been the subject of attention and admiration for everybody. Lustre is a metal glass nanocomposite thin layer made of metal in a silica-based glassy matrix. The lustre technique was first applied to glass objects in early Islamic Egypt and later to glazed ceramics in other Islamic lands, especially in Iraq and Iran. Lusterwares are one of the most beautiful types of ceramics in the history of Islamic pottery that the peak period of its popularity in Iran is related to the Seljuk era until the end of the Mongol period. The Luster masterpieces that are from the Seljuk, Mongol and Ilkhanid eras and even the Timurid era, represent the peak of using of decorative techniques to build the potteries. For some reason, this technique has become obsolete in the Timurid period and has been revived with the advent of the Safavid dynasty and has been produced with new features.Unlike the examples of the Islamic Middle Ages in Iran, there is little information about Safavid lusterwares, especially in the fields of shapes and forms, decorative patterns and the main centers for making luster, which raises the need for scientific research in this field. The aim of this study is to identify, classify and analyze the most important formal features and decorative motifs of these luster ceramics in accordance with the opinions of Islamic pottery researchers and to suggest areas as their manufacturing centers according to these characteristics. Accordingly, the research questions are: What are the features of forms and decorative patterns in lusterware ceramics in the Safavid era? And which areas were the main centers for the construction of these works? The research method is descriptive-analytical with a comparative approach and based on qualitative analysis. In this article, first, the information and images of a number of luster potteries of the Safavid era have been collected by using some electronic sources and library resources and then, 21 excellent luster ceramics of the Safavid era have been selected among the artworks in museums and collections for further study, taking into account the three factors: originality, quality and accessibility. After describing the formal characteristics and decorative patterns of the samples, the linear design of decorative patterns has been done to see more details. One of the limitations of the present study is the lack of access to many specimens and their specifications, which due to their location in the repository of domestic museums or outside the political and geographical borders of Iran, access to them or full photography and obtaining all dimensional details of them were not possible. Although many researches have been done about luster glaze ceramics in the Middle Ages, especially in the field of technique of making or laboratory examinations of glaze of this type of pottery or its decorative patterns, but about lusterwares in the Safavid era, limited research has been done and little information is available; most of which are repeated in different sources. According to the research findings, in terms of form, Tofdan and especially different types of Sorahi with small-sized designs are the most significant and special products of the Safavid era lusterwares. In terms of color quality, pottery is divided into three general categories: gold patterns on white background, gold patterns on azure background, and a combination of gold patterns on separate white and azure glazes, and in terms of the content of the designs, despite the influence of Chinese landscape making on the type and details of the designs and the style of execution, it shows independent methods. Also, the influence of Ottoman and Indian-Mughal art styles in the field of some decorative designs shows the artistic relations between the Safavid era Iran and these neighboring lands. The cities of Tabriz, Qazvin and Mashhad in the 16th century and the cities of Isfahan, Yazd and Kerman in the 17th century, are the most important areas in Iran that can be named as the centers of production of lusterwares ceramics in the Safavid era. In the end, it is reminded that the current research has been done according to the available samples and cannot claim to study all the dimensions of the Safavid era luster glaze, so, further research in this field seems necessary.

The various types of coins with different materials, shapes, and themes in each period are a reflection of the cultural functions of that period, and in addition to the economic function, have presented a set of ideologies of the ruling system. Coinage is one of the first obvious signs of civilization and a kind of beginning of the complex social life of the tribes. Patterns and themes engraved on coins have been a constant trend throughout history, but on the other hand in each period they would change and these changes have been influenced by the political and religious attitudes of rulers and artists who designed these coins. The coins of the Safavid period are no exception to this rule and these works have been an important platform and media for the presentation and expression of ideas and beliefs of the time, and the Safavids have used this tool well. Shiite religion, which played a key role in the formation and perpetuation of the Safavid rule, also played an important and stable role in the formation of culture and art of this era, and this area was not unaffected by the change in ideology and social developments of the time. By changing the political, military, economic, and religious structures in Iran, the Safavids achieved significant development, progress and cultural advancement. The concentration and integration of the Safavid state organization caused all the arts to flourish and many productions to be made in all fields of art, and thus the arts in this era grew significantly in quantity. The works formed during this period, backed by valuable experiences of the Timurids, had a unique strength and integrity and masterful skill that is less seen in the post-Safavid period. Shiite philosophy and thought had a special manifestation in the works of this period, to the extent that with the recognition of the Safavid Shiite dynasty in Iran, artists put more emphasis on Shiite themes as the basis of their works and used Shiite calligraphy and religious ideology in applied arts as decorative elements and tools to propagate and strengthen Shiite values. Due to the existence of two characteristic features of Shiite religion and national identity, the art of this period had become a tool for expression and was used in service of the religion. Various disciplines of art in this period were associated with Shiite thought, and symbolic language expressed the ideas of this religion. Iranian and Shiite artists reflected the spirit of Shiite thought, i.e. devotion to the family of the Prophet and the Imams, and especially Ali ibn Abi Talib (AS) himself in various ways in their works of art. This article aims to explore the hidden and less studied characteristics of copper coins or foluses of this period. Accordingly, while introducing the silver motifs on these foluses, it analyzes the motifs regarding the image of "lion and sun" as a relatively recurring theme in these works. This research with a descriptive-analytical method and historical approach, studies the content of the theme of "Lion and Sun" engraved on the common foluses of the late Safavid period, based on prefixes such as: "Content of common astronomical knowledge", "presented descriptions", “Shiite index themes in the content of narrations and hadiths" and "descriptions of Shiite index themes in literary sources", "written themes of contemporary coins" and "functional contexts of these coins". Data collection was done by library method and their analysis was qualitative. 41 folus coins minted in the Safavid period decorated with the image of lion and sun, form the samples studied in this study. The results of this study show that the designs stamped on Safavid copper coins include human (human body on horseback), cattle (horse, lion, elephant, deer, wild goat, monkey, camel, etc.), birds (with emphasis on the image of peacocks), aquatics (with emphasis on the image of fish), plants (cypress and arabesque), celestial (sun and constellations) and hybrid (peacock and snake, lion and sun, cow and fish or whale, etc.). Meanwhile, the image of "lion and sun" was one of the most frequent motifs on these copper coins. In the process of semantic analysis of this image, various contexts such as "content of common astronomical knowledge", "literary sources", "content of narrations and hadiths", "written themes of contemporary coins", "examples of paintings" and the "functional contexts of these coins" were studied, and finally, the religious and Shiite content for this image and this functional context was found more probable than other assumed contents (astronomical, ancient). According to the study of the above-mentioned texts, the content of this image is related to one of the most important principles of Shiite belief; namely the succession and guardianship of Imam Ali (AS) after the Holy Prophet of Islam (PBUH) and has a high status since it represents Imam Ali (AS) in Shiite thought.

The display of Islamic artworks has not had a uniform, integrated and stable narrative; these works have been displayed in different exhibitions in different ways and the concept of Islamic art has also been influenced by Islamic art exhibitions. Therefore, studying the works of Islamic art in exhibitions can reveal the hidden ideologies and direction in these art events.Exhibitions are not neutral and unbiased; they have special cultural and political connotation. According to Timothy Mitchell, these events select and arrange works based on the "Exhibitionary Order"; Exhibition order finds rules over time and imposes norms on the understanding and interpretation of works and objects. Therefore, the study of art events (exhibitions, biennials and festivals) is a good approach to explain how to interpret and recognize works of art. It is from this perspective that we can know how the works of Islamic art were known, interpreted and understood in different periods. In this article, we discuss the impact of art events on the introduction, collection and documentation of Islamic art; events that give direction to the art history and selection process of museums. These artistic events have influenced the introduction, collection, documentation, categorization and conceptualization of Islamic art.The present research method is based on event studies. Study of art events (exhibitions, biennials and festivals) is a good approach to explain the complex relationship between art and reality. Nathalie Heinich sees the study of artistic events as a pragmatic approach in the sociology of art that studies how values are produced and reproduced in exhibitions. In this article, we pursue the methodological questions of how these exhibitions present Islamic art. How do they shape narratives of Islamic art influenced by dominant artistic discourses and currents? In this article, the events and exhibitions of Islamic art in the three discourses of Colonialism, Nationalism and Globalism are studied and this question has arisen that: how three different narratives of Islamic art in the colonial, national and global discourses were formed? The event’s study can analyze the hidden and ideological functions of exhibitions in the construction of art history. The Data collection method in this article is documentary analysis and data organization is based on the trend analysis.The results of this article distinguish three currents of "world fair", "national festivals" and "art biennials". The world fair began with the first exhibition in 1851 and continued until the Mohammadi Art Exhibition in 1910 in Munich. The event, sponsored by one country each year, was an arena for the colonial powers to compete and show their power and influence around the world. The Ottomans, first participated in the 1867 Paris Exhibition, and Iran was the first to officially attend the 1873 Vienna Exhibition. Influenced by the development of French colonialism, the Egyptian and Moroccan pavilions gradually held more significant pavilions at world fairs. After the 1870s, unlike previous periods when booths were categorized by country, a special hall was created as Islamic art, which included works from Iran, Arabia, Turkey, Egypt and India. This exhibition was an important step in documenting Islamic art and changing attitudes towards Islamic art. Actually, In these exhibitions, under the influence of the West and influenced by the colonial discourse, that Oriental-Islamic objects and subjects were selected and acquired by Western museums; it was during this period that works and objects were collected, categorized and named, and an Orientalist conception of Islamic art was formed.In the first half of the twentieth century, with the development of the nationalist discourse and the establishment of new governments in Iran and the Arab countries, a new stream of national festivals and festivals began. In these exhibitions, which lasted from the 1920s to the end of the 1960s, Islamic art was considered as cultural heritage and part of national wealth, and the nationalist narrative dominated Islamic art. During this period, exhibitions were held not under the title of Islamic art, but on the basis of nations with the titles of art of Iran, Turkey, Iraq, Egypt and included works of Islamic art as part of the national heritage; the 1976 Islamic Art Exhibition marked the end of this stream. Since the 1980s, with the decline of nationalism and the rise of the globalization discourse, Islamic art exhibitions have entered a new phase. This time, Islamic art was presented as contemporary art in exhibitions, and the Biennial of Contemporary Art tried to present it as an artistic style beyond nationalism. However, what is displayed in these events as contemporary Islamic art is a narrative of contemporary art in Islamic lands. In other words, this current includes the experiences of contemporary art, which are often deconstructive and critical, rather than representative of Islamic art.

Kerman was one of the most important pottery production bases in Iran in the Safavid era during the 11 to the 13 centuries AH (16 to 18 AD) and the products of its workshops have been exported to European markets in addition to domestic consumption. Iran was in the center of political tensions during the Safavid period and after that, and in general, the 10th, the 11th and the 12th centuries AH (16th, 17th and 18th AD) were the arena of East-West conflict. Iranian pottery enjoyed the direct influence of Ottoman, European and Chinese pottery and elements of Mongolian and Buddhist pictorial culture as well as European pictorial tradition. In general, the pottery artifacts of this period are influenced by the popular imported Chinese Ming and Yuan porcelains, and repeat many of their patterns and motifs. In the meantime, Kerman products are reminders of new aspects and innovative approaches and the Iranian spirit. It has never been enough to simply imitate imported species; rather, the products depict past traditions and national and indigenous beliefs, and sometimes manifestations of the region's biological geography. In the blue and white pottery and the species known as multi-colored Kerman, the human reaction to the events and ecology of the region can be traced. The vastness of this land, its elongation in latitude, and many topographic differences have caused a unique climatic and ecological diversity; with vast and scorching deserts, lush plains and pastures, glaciers and rich forests. Such biodiversity has led to different plant and animal species. The study of flora and fauna of Kerman region in comparison with the designs and motifs of artifacts and textiles shows the influence of artists from the ecology of the region in a direct and sometimes implicit way. Of course, the limitations of resources and climatic deficiencies and the hostile forces of nature have caused the image of the environment in the paintings of these people to be sometimes manifested in the form of dreams and ideals; in the sense that the people of this land, in the form of images and motifs, have dominated the problems of living on the edge of the desert and have reduced its adverse effects. In this way, they portray their desire to achieve stability and peace in life, which in some cases is the opposite of everyday reality. The purpose of this study was to investigate and analyze the impact of climate and environmental geography as cultural components in the formation of Safavid pottery in Kerman. Therefore, the main question of this research is as follows: What effect did the environmental components and biological geography of southeastern Iran have on the range of Safavid pottery motifs in Kerman? This research, which is developmental and done by descriptive-analytical method, is in the field of human ecology and in the field of anthropological studies, and its importance and necessity is in the category of culture and the behaviors that result from it. The method of collecting information is documentary (library research method) and field observations. The statistical population of this study is pottery and tiles of Kerman in the beginning of the 11th to the 13th centuries AH (16th to 18th centuries AD) and the sampling method in this study is nonprobability sampling. It is also possible to study under-glazed paintings based on observations of works at museums and auction houses. Also, the tiles and paintings of Ganj Ali Khan collection have been photographed in the field. The method of analyzing information is qualitative. In this regard, initially the climate, atmosphere and land form of Kerman is reviewed, following which the plant and animal ecology of the study area and then, samples of pottery from Kerman in comparison with it have been studied and analyzed. The result of this research reveals the artists' influence from the region's ecosystem in a direct and sometimes implicit way; among them are the motifs of wild carnation flowers, vine leaves, cypress and willow trees and migratory birds, and the repetitive motif of deer is influenced by the flora and fauna of the region as well. The abundance of carnation flowers and vine leaves is a visual indicator in recognizing the Safavid pottery of Kerman.

One of the related techniques and ornaments of architecture is the usage of stucco and stucco ornaments, which have had unique features in each historical period before and after Islam. The art of stucco is a technique that could rely on decorations including abstract, geometric and calligraphic designs to leave various masterpieces in various arts, including architecture. In the Ilkhanid period, we see beautifully applied stucco ornaments that were ordered by governors and rulers. One of these buildings is the mausoleum of Sultan Mohammad Khodabandeh (Oljaito) in Soltaniyeh, Zanjan, which due to the importance of that building at that time, various and unique ornaments with different techniques and methods have been implemented in it. The ornaments used in the Soltaniyeh mausoleum include stucco ornaments, Mogharnas work, tile work, inlay work, paintings and inscriptions, and various ornaments. Construction of this monument began at 704 AH and ended after 10 years in 713 AH. Another building is Rokniyeh School in Yazd, which was built in 725 AH. Sayyed Rokn al-Din Mohammad, a judge in Yazd, was a longtime friend of Khajeh Rashid al-Din Fazlullah and the founder of the school. He left many endowed buildings, which are described in the “Jame al-Khayrat” book. The prosperity of Rokniyeh School faded away over time, and since Rokn al-Din himself is buried under the main dome of the school after his death, this building is used as a mausoleum. Shamsieh School in Yazd is the third selected building. Sayyed Shams al-Din was the son of Sayyed Rokn al-Din, who was married to one of the daughters of Khawaja Rashid al-Din Fazlullah. After his father was imprisoned, Sayyed Shams al-Din went to Tabriz and complained to Abu Sa'id. He died in Tabriz in 732 AH and his body was sent to Yazd to be buried under the dome of the Shamsieh School that he had built. This mausoleum is one of the architectural masterpieces of Yazd that Sayyed Sham al-Din designed in Tabriz and sent its plans and designs to Yazd. The reason for choosing these two buildings in Yazd is that these buildings were designed by the artists of the Ilkhanid court, and also the time interval between the construction of these two buildings and the Soltaniyeh mausoleum, which was the most important building of the Ilkhanid period and the capital at that time, is insignificant. Therefore, the stucco ornaments of the Soltaniyeh monument of the Ilkhanid period in Zanjan, as well as the two monuments of the mausoleum of Sayyed Rokan al-Din and the tomb of Sayyed Shams al-Din of the Al-Muzaffar period in Yazd, are exemplary and exquisite historical examples of the use of stucco ornaments in architecture. Furthermore, allowing this art to remain unknown and failing to study it, will cause it to be forgotten and destroyed over time. The objectives of the present study are to identify, analyze and structurally adapt the visual elements used in stucco ornaments and the influencing factors in these buildings, and to study their influence from each other in order to recognize them both to recreate the patterns as well as to recognize the differences in style. In terms of the design and execution of stucco ornaments; since the lack of sufficient knowledge of the interactions of the Ilkhanid era buildings has caused a gap in the classification of stucco ornaments of the Ilkhanid period, the present study will help to fill the gap in the typology of stucco ornaments of this period and to reveal the points covered by Ilkhanid art. This research is organized around three main questions: 1- What are the visual elements of the stucco ornaments in Soltaniyeh mausoleum and the two mausoleums of Sayyed Roknaddin Mohammad and Sayyed Shamsaddin and what are their characteristics? 2. What are the commonalities and differences in the three buildings? 3- What are the possible interaction effects in these three buildings? The research method is descriptive-analytical and "comparative-relative", and the method of collecting information is fieldwork and library studies. The results of the studies showed that the visual elements of the stucco ornaments of the mentioned buildings are classified into three categories: plant motifs, geometric motifs and calligraphy. Characteristics of visual elements of stucco ornaments of the two Muzaffarid buildings in Yazd are affected by the Soltaniyeh mausoleum, and the variety of stucco inscriptions of Soltaniyeh mausoleum is more than two selected buildings in Yazd. Furthermore, in all three buildings, Islamic motifs, geometric knots, Thuluth and Kufic scripts have been observed.

Griffin is a famous mythological hybrid creature, which is made of two other powerful animals: the lion and the eagle. This hybrid animal connects the powers of the lion, as the earth’s king, to the powers of eagle, as the sky’s king. So, it is considered as one of the most important symbols of power and kingship in every civilization. Although some remaining instances in Egypt show the image of the griffin, but according to the research results of the Ashmolean museum, the Elamites were the first people to use the creature and soon after, different kinds of the animals were used in other civilizations like Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and even in the Far East. The Greeks used this motif enthusiastically in accordance to their artistic methods. So, the griffin became a common motif in Greek art. This research is a content analysis of different kinds of the griffin motif in Iran and Greek.The research is based on studying 145 samples of the motif from both countries using the relational method in the final analysis. The aims of the research are to analyze the motif according to the mythological beliefs. It is sought to find the answer to two main questions about the griffin motif: 1- what are the similarities and the differences between the motif in Iran and Greece? 2- How do the mythological beliefs affect the form or the usage of the griffin in both countries? The study is categorized into three aspects: first, the origins of the griffin are studied. Second, the form and shape of the griffin are discussed based on the samples. This includes the comparative study of the form and shape in both countries. In the third part, the mythological analysis of the motif is conducted according to the myths related to griffin. The results of the study show that the methods used in illustrating the griffin motif are according to the artistic methods of each country. The griffin has commonly been used in Iran since the Elamite era, but it has been used in Greece just after 1700 BC, in Crete, during Minoan art. The griffin in Iran has different forms and styles while in Greece it remains in the basic form as the combination of an eagle’s head with the lion’s body. Besides that, the Iranian form of the griffin was used as the schema for the Greek types. The open-mouthed forms of the griffin were common during the Parthians of Iran, and it became the original form of the griffin in Greece. However, it should be taken into consideration that in Greece, the griffins were more natural and energetic in design. The Greeks tended more to make busts of the griffin, while in Iran its reliefs had been more common. In Iran the griffins are the guardians of the winged disc, tree of life or the fire altar, and the viewers of the king’s religious party; beside the king in formal ceremony or alongside him in battles. Sometimes the king haunts the griffin. The haunting scenes of griffin by the king may convey symbolic concepts of victory or power. The Greek griffins are also showed as the guardians, but they are always in battle with the gods’ or goddesses’ enemies. Sometimes the gods Apollo, Dionysus, and the goddess Athena ride on the back of a griffin. While the Iranian types of the griffin are always sitting on hind legs, sitting, or standing straight and calm, the Greek griffins are open-mouthed, roaring, and even in attacking position. Another important characteristic of the griffins is their horn, and ears. Sometimes the griffin has two horns, which is the characteristic of the Iranian types. The horns show the godly, manhood power. The ears belong to donkey or horse, and showing them as a part of griffin’s body affects its concepts, and that’s why the animal is a symbol of wisdom. It seems that in Greece, accompanying the gods can simply change the roles of the griffin to a divine beast, but the symbolic concepts of griffin are more effectively used in Iran. The griffin in Iran is always showed in great serenity with dignity beside the king. In Iran some other related symbols to the griffin are the life plant, and the winged circle, but they have never been used with the Greek griffins. It is obvious that the griffin in Iran has the highest level of power and dignity. In both countries, the griffin is the most important symbol of the great power; the power that in Iran belonged to Inshushinak and Mithra, while in Greece belonged to Apollo, Athena and Dionysus. The creature is connected to the heavenly symbols of the sun and lightening, and is also considered as the symbol of protection, victory and wisdom.

The strange wonderful themes and contents of this world have been discussed in different periods. In addition to their authorship by scholars, the writing of these manuscripts has also been considered. Usually, paintings have shown the concepts as well as the decoration of the texts of the manuscripts. Among the oldest of these texts are the Wonder Letters.Wonder letters are about unknown concepts rooted in people's beliefs, traditions and culture. They have narrated what was new to human and what he did not know well in general as well as secrets. Therefore, man has entered every phenomenon into the scope of wonders due to lack of knowledge. These themes have reached the authors of wonder letters with changes during different periods. Furthermore, what is known as knowledge today is sometimes the discovery of that mystery and wonder.This mystery was introduced in the literature with the advent of wonder letters. In this way, literature began to recount these wonders in geographical books and travelogues. Eventually, strange subjects in the fields of zoology, ethnography, geography, astronomy, and other sciences became popular in the literary form with their exclusive features. Of course, over time, the scientific aspect of these wonder letters faded and in some cases changed to folk literature. In these manuscripts, the themes are more clearly expressed by the illustrations. Qazvini's book "Ajā'ib al-Makhlūqāt wa Gharā'ib al-Mawjūdāt" is one of these works that has been translated into several languages ​​and its content has been illustrated.The aim of the present study is to discover the relationship between the images of the planets in the book "Ajā'ib al-Makhlūqāt wa Gharā'ib al-Mawjūdāt" by Qazvini and the views of Abu Rayhan al-Biruni. The book is written by Zakaria bin Mohammad bin Mahmud almakmuti Qazvini (605-682 AH). He has been compared to Pliny (a natural scientist and Roman writer) for his breadth of information and lack of scientific thought, and has been called "the Medieval Pliny." This book contains information about the sky, planets, stars and their movements, as well as about time, day, night, moon, seasons together with the Arab, Roman and Iranian calendars. The other part of the book describes the earth, water, land, seas, islands, and mountains as well as all the early information on natural history. This book is one of the most valuable works of natural and human geography of the Iranians in the Islamic period.The various versions of this book are accompanied by paintings that have helped to understand the contents of the book, and are among the few Arabic books that are decorated with pictures and have miniatures in addition to astronomical pictures and tables. Some images of plants, animals, and wildlife are imaginary, but in some cases miniatures have helped to explain important issues, such as the history of the image of the stars and natural history. There are many manuscripts of the wonder letter of Qazvini that are kept inside and outside of Iran. Many editions of this book have been published in Europe as well. Regarding the sources of this book, we can mention the works of Abu Ali Sina, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, and especially the book Al-Haywan written by Abu Othman Jahez. Besides, the book Tohfat al-Qaraib is mentioned many times in the book.The present study has used the book "Al-Tafhim li Awa'il Sana'at al-Tanjim" written by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni. Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (362-362 AH) was an Iranian scientist in the field of mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and the maker of new tools and instruments in astronomy, geography, mineralogy, and pharmacology.This research has been done in order to answer this question: what is the relation between the text and the paintings of the book “Ajā'ib al-Makhlūqāt wa Gharā'ib al-Mawjūdāt” by Qazvini and the text of the book "Al-Tafhim li Awa'il Sana'at al-Tanjim"?The research method is descriptive-analytical with a comparative approach and the information is collected through documentary and library methods. Then, the paintings from the Aflak section are compared with the text of Qazvini's book as well as the text of the book "Al-Tafhim li Awa'il Sana'at al-Tanjim" which contains Abu Rayhan al-Biruni's views on astronomy. After a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the cases, the study has come to the conclusion that the themes and paintings of Aflak are related to each other in three versions of Qazvini’s “Ajā'ib al-Makhlūqāt wa Gharā'ib al-Mawjūdāt” including the Arabic copy (1280 AD), the Persian copy (around 1500 to 1599 AD), and the second Arabic copy (1750 to 1770 AD). However, the content of the book was not enough for illustrating, and the painters relied on information from other texts to invent the paintings, including the book "Al-Tafhim li Awa'il Sana'at al-Tanjim".Therefore, since the paintings of the Wonder Letters were based on the text, in the cases of lack of information, it has been compensated by gathering information from other sources.