نشریه مطالعات بین المللی
سال هجدهم شماره 4 (پیاپی 72، بهار 1401)

Practice theory (PT) is one of the latest theories of International Relations (IR). This theory is the outcome of the practice turn in social theory in the first decade of the 21st century. There are controversies among scholars on the nature and identity of this theory. Some consider it as a new and developed version of constructivism or neo-constructivism. Others, on the contrary, regard it as a separate theory from constructivism. Likewise, this article, argues that PT is different from constructivism in such a way that it considers international practices as the unit of analysis and independent variable to empirically and practically explain “ir”. In fact, “ir” are defined and analyzed according to regular practices of international activists on a daily basis. The aim of this study is to articulate, explain, and critique PT in the Iranian IR community. To obtain this goal, first, the practice turn in IR is explained. Then different approaches and typologies of PT are clarified. The third section examines the principles, hypotheses, and theoretical commitments of PT. The fourth part deals with how ir are analyzed via PT referring to some case studies. Next, PT is critically evaluated. Finally, the findings of the study are presented.Keywords: Action, Practice, Practice Turn, Praxiography, Habitus, Relationalism, Practice Communities, Practice Theory.

After the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Tunisia in 2010, a wave of unrest swept the Arab world, which eventually led to revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, the overthrow of the government in Yemen and Libya, and the outbreak of the civil war in Syria. While many reasons were offered for these unrests, such as the dependence of governments on foreign powers, the existence of authoritarian governments, suppression of opponents in general and Islamist movements in particular, individual-centered power, etc., the main reason shall be considered the erosion of the social contract. However, after more than a decade, the Arab world has not yet been able to find a suitable mechanism to define a new model of social contract. Now the main question is why Arab governments are not able to reach a final solution in determining the optimal pattern of communication between the government and the society as a new social contract. It seems that lack of dialogue channels between the government and the society, the impossibility of changing the social status of citizens, the implementation of poverty-generating policies, the existence of illegitimate democratic institutions, the social status of women, etc. are among the main obstacle in this regard. Considering the critical situation of these governments, in that normal political factors have turned into socio-economic security concerns due to the inefficiency of the governments, this study intended to investigate factors that have led the Arab world into a security crisis in the framework of the Copenhagen School of Security.

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region has been bombarded with challenges beyond conflict, tension, and competition since 2011 up until now (2021). Even though this critical moment, or rather vicious cycle, has been analysed extensively, none of the studies have addressed the simultaneous challenges posed by "awakening" and the "COVID-19" pandemic, which have played a critical role in the regional crises. Therefore, this study sought to examine how the countries affected by these two waves have remained in the path of the weak, bankrupt, and failed states, and what lies ahead of them. This was a descriptive-analytical research study and the data was collected through secondary research, involving a review of library, documentary, and online sources. The research findings indicate that many of the MENA countries affected by the two waves of awakening and COVID-19 are still continuing on the path of weak, bankrupt, and failed states due to their failure to resolve internal challenges in the economic, social, cultural, political, and military sectors. These countries have fallen behind in terms of economic, health, and social developments and are weighed down by corruption and inefficiency, which means the adverse effects of these conditions will likely continue to exist in the coming decade or decades.

The national security of a country is the result of both domestic and international developments in that country. Governments join economic, security, and other treaties to improve their national security. One of the regional treaties that Iran has joined as a permanent member is the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). Thus, the question to be addressed is: What effects does the Islamic Republic of Iran's permanent membership in the SCO have on its national security? In this regard, we have employed defensive realism prepositions to cover the study's objectives. This study uses a descriptive-analytical method, with data collected through a documentary and desk research approach. The findings reveal that the Islamic Republic of Iran's policy toward the United States' maximum pressure is centered on resistance, as well as continuing its strategic regional actions, which rely on a hard balancing approach and coalition with neighboring countries. Consequently, Iran's strong presence in the SCO may eventually improve its national security.

According to Paragraph 4 of Article 2 of the Charter of the United Nations, it is forbidden to threaten to use force in international relations. This regulation refers first to the illegal military threats; however, the Charter mentions nothing about the characteristics of such threats. Since there are certain terms such as Preemptive defense that justifies the use of force due to the possibility of an imminent military threat, it is apparently essential to identify the indices affecting the detection of imminent military threats. This study aims to determine the characteristics of an illegal military threat. In fact, how can an imminent military threat be differentiated from a passive military threat? A descriptive analytical approach was adopted in this study to give a reasonable answer to this question. The answer was provided through the research findings emphasizing six indices: proximity, the time required to operationalize a threat, a threatening entity’s identity, the domain and area of a threat, the target of a threat, and the level of international relations. Reviewing some international documents and agreements, the authors finally proposed legal strategies for dealing with illegal military threats within the framework of international law.

Forests, as the respiratory lung of the earth, play a significant role in the realization of the right to life, and are inextricably linked with other fundamental rights of mankind; forests, as one of the important elements of the natural environment, complete the right to a healthy human environment. And because of their unique characteristics, they have a decisive role in the victory or failure of hostile countries in the wars, and as a result, hostile parties use the forest as providing hostile aims, so they must be fully utilized and utilized. All existing capacities and capabilities are in keeping with it. Every day, the size of the wars increases, and equally one of the environmental resources that are at the true risk of destruction and falling from their scope are forests, so it must be created by building a proper structure with legal requirements to guarantee this God-given blessing Which is considered as an introduction to the enjoyment of human rights, takes coordinated action. This paper seeks to answer the question of how to protect the environment by exploring different international documents, in particular on how to promote the conservation of forest ecosystem resources using the ability of international institutions to formulate a global resolve. Provide the forest environment at a time of volatile conflicts?

Certainly, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is one of the resources forhuman rights. Assessing the universality of the declaration is crucially important in this regard. It is concerned with investigating topics such as the universality of human rights in regard to studying the viewpoints of Iran and Saudi Arabia aboutthe universality of human rights, as well as the effects of culture, religion, and traditions in the Muslim countries in respect to accepting or not accepting the universality of human rights. The question that this study is seeking to answer is what is the position of human rights from the viewpoints of two centers of the world of Islam, i.e., Saudi Arabia and Iran? This is a descriptive-analytical study. The data were collected through the documentary method and library research. This article is concerned with the relationship between civil society and human rights organizations. A cause-and-effect relationship was considered in which civil society is the factor causing the efficiency of human rights organizations. In addition, the absence of civil society is the cause leading to the absence of human rights, and a lack of respect for this phenomenon, and prevents it from being executed and transformed into an effective institution in a country. As a factor and a platform for the development of human rights and the mechanisms related to it, this issue was investigated in the Middle East, i.e., in Iran and Saudi Arabia, each of which follows a different mechanism but of the same nature. The problem of human rights violations and failure to develop civil society is overlooked in all countries in the Middle East. However, Saudi Arabia lacks law governance in its legal system's structure. Due to this characteristic, Saudi Arabia is a case phenomenon and notorious in the new world. On the other hand, Iran has posed numerous challenges in this regard on account of its different interpretation of the foundation of human rights from the Universal Declaration.

Science and technology have undergone significant transformations in the 21st century. The rapid growth of science in this century has given rise to a new type of technology known as emerging technology, which is constantly evolving and is closely linked to previous technologies. This study focused on three instances of emerging technologies, i.e., artificial intelligence (AI), 3D printing, and space technology. Governments have always been in endless competition with other actors to enhance their power and national security. Hence, the descriptive-explanatory method was used in this study to discuss the opportunities and threats of emerging technologies and find an answer to the following question: how do emerging technologies play a role in the security and national power of countries, and what are the threats and opportunities in this field? Since several factors can affect the process of gaining and promoting national security and power, the main objective of this study was to determine the effects of emerging technologies on the countries’ national security and power. The findings showed that emerging technologies, similar to other tools available to the international system actors, can bring their own opportunities and threats. Therefore, all the international system actors need to take advantage of existing capacities to turn all threats into opportunities and use them to the benefit of their national interests.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is considered a specialized agency responsible for regulating various maritime issues, including civil liability for offshore oil pollution. The important point in this regard is to identify and operationalize the process of compensation for damage to people and the marine environment. This descriptive-analytical study hence aims to evaluate the performance of IMO in terms of civil liability for offshore oil pollution. This study also discusses the liabilities of ships carrying oil products and how they compensate for possible damage and loss. The first issue raised after any marine accident causing oil pollution is the liabilities of the shipowner and how they should compensate for the damage and losses. According to the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC), the owners of oil tankers are responsible for adequate compensation for damage and losses caused by oil pollution. In fact, IMO has developed a unique and complete legal system for civil liability for offshore oil pollution. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the scope, characteristics, and legal functions of international conventions in this regard. In fact, the general principles of these conventions are evaluated that and then their features, functions, weaknesses, and strengths will be described.

For constructivists, strategic culture is the product of norms and culture-bearing units such as norm entrepreneurs. They believe that the United States invaded Iraq to replace the dominant strategic cultural norms under the logic of the Cold War with a new approach, i.e., democratic regime change through preventive war. However, during the Iraq War, the proposed paradigm, advocated by neoconservative norm entrepreneurs and traditional conservatives in the Bush administration, could not take the place of the Cold War-era strategy for multilateral containment. This norm was a part of a larger revolutionary strategy that advocated the policy of preventive war and the hegemonic paradigm, promoting the US hegemon of democracy through force. The US sought to spread this new view by piloting it in Iraq in order to prove the viability and effectiveness of preventive war. New international groupings such as “coalitions of the willing” and the national security strategy of 2002 provided the documents legitimating these new policies. However, the publishing of these documents encountered strong opposition at domestic and international levels. Therefore, the American strategic culture and national security policy briefly worked with the proposed opposing neoconservative paradigm, but presently they are returning to a version of the Cold War normative paradigm. In constructivist view, the Iraq War not only was not able to show the validity of a new vision of American strategic culture, but also undercut the paradigm it was supposed to underpin.

This study discusses the issue that although technology facilitates affairs in various aspects of human life, it has also assumed a disruptive role. Technological disruption refers to a function of technology indicating that changes in the rules of the game and the components governing the logic of action transform a wide range of international issues (from international security to global governance and foreign policy). These changes, affect the position of countries in relation to adaptation or non-adaptation to new value and performance networks. Accordingly, geoeconomics, as an important platform for emerging competitions for power, has also been subject to technological disruption. This article hence aims to find out how technological disruption can affect the geoeconomic status of countries as well as their position in the international arena. This research was a descriptive-analytical study using the documentary method. The research hypothesis indicates that technological development from the late 20th century has established networking of the operating spaces and governance of currents between countries by shaping the spatial rotation and, as a result, has disrupted and put in doubt the independent agency of geoeconomic actors. On the other hand, by facilitating the exertion of power and authority as the regulator and director of the strategic currents, technology highlights the position of some countries and marginalizes others. This study aims to evaluate in detail the dimensions of Iran’s geoeconomic status, as the study case, based on the intended framework.

International intellectual property (IP) regimes play a critical role in climate change management and control. Meanwhile, both developed and developing countries share a high level of responsibility for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and the negative effects of global warming. The main point of contention in international negotiations is the role and impact of IP, specifically patents, in the development and expansion of environmentally friendly technologies and the reduction of negative effects on global warming. In developed countries, IP encourages green innovations and is an effective prerequisite in the development and transfer of technology; however, in developing countries, IP and the monopolistic behavior of its owners is a huge impediment to receiving green technologies. In this regard, the study's main question was: "What is the position of international IP regimes that play a key role in climate change?” This descriptive-analytical study used a desk study and data from reputable online sources to compile its findings. The findings indicated that IP systems have the potential to provide positive results and demand for the public good due to increased influence at international regimes, which is the subject of ongoing and extensive diplomatic negotiations and cooperation in international meetings, as well as on a practical level in the context of private companies.

Innovation in advertising methods and tools proportionate to the artificial intelligence and digital age is among the most effective components in understanding the nature of advertising in the wars to come. The knowledge of war advertisement policymakers regarding delicacies and complexities of advertisement, especially in times of crisis such as war, is crucially important in developing and choosing policies. Our main question is how to develop a process model (multiple movements) of advertisement policy during the war such that the advertisement activities could lay the foundation, be efficient and effective, plus prevent scattered work and dispersion in execution, as well as imposing unnecessary expenses upon the country with emphasis and view of the future. This research seeks to obtain a process model (multi-flow) of advertisement policy in the Islamic Republic of Iran in case of war. It aims at illustrating the efficiency and effectiveness of the advertisement activities of the organizations and institutions in charge of advertising in the county and identifying and introducing the influential promoting and hampering factors in case of future probable wars. Research assumption proposes the policy model of multiple movements and points out the necessity of establishing a specialized organization to plan war advertisements in the future modern wars. This study is carried out based on a content analysis study model that assesses the related contexts and documents and analyzes their content. This study concluded that it is necessary to establish a specialized organization to plan war advertisements for future modern wars.

Since the end of World War II, global developments have driven the world to expand collaborations. In addition to providing various solutions to peace, the Charter of the United Nations has made an extensive reference to the “human rights” and transformed this term into a discourse, the global compliance with which can be considered an important factor in the public acceptance of a country. This term has gained so much importance that all international mechanisms should be developed accordingly. In this regard, specific frameworks have been defined for sanctions in the UN laws, and the Charter of the United Nations will explicitly revoke the sanctions that violate the human rights. Conversely, the US has deprived Iran of both political and economic relations and obstructed its right to purchase drugs and medical equipment by imposing unilateral sanctions against this country. This paper aims to analyze the effects of the US sanctions on the violation of Iranian people’s right to health. For this purpose, a descriptive-analytical approach is employed to determine what impacts the US sanctions have had on Iranian people’s health in pharmaceutical and medical areas. Although drugs and medical equipment are officially considered humanitarian items and should not be sanctioned, the research findings indicate that the US has imposed unilateral sanctions on these items. Hence, it has violated the international laws and human rights, thereby adversely affecting Iranian people’s right to health.