پژوهشنامه گرافیک و نقاشی
پیاپی 8 (بهار و تابستان 1401)

 Conversation pieces are paintings or images, that depict a large number of people from the same class ordifferent groups of society, who are seemingly in a position of conversing with each other about a topic, in the same place. The context of these works, in common with the context of collage, is the juxtaposition of different and incongruous components in creating a general image of interwoven relationships. Since the arrangement of characters in these works is accidental, the narrative style does not follow a particular order and prioritization of components in the interpretation of the depicted events or characters due to the synchronization and co-location of the presence of different characters. Nevertheless, understanding the relationships between the characters and events in such paintings does not mean that it is impossible to receive their message; in other words, understanding such pictures depends on understanding the network of relationships between their components. This means that by analyzing the structural rules of the network system and the intricate connections between the components, Franco Moretti’s "distant reading", Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of the "carnival", and the philosophy of collage, the viewer can recreate the mentality of the creators of conversation pieces and their philosophy of compositions. In this light, the present research tries to make a more comprehensive study of such pieces regarding the principle of the arrangement of illustrated components in them. 

 This study tries to answer whether the figures depicted in conversation pieces have relationships with each other or not and whether their positions are random or not. Moreover, what philosophical and artistic principles do conversation pieces follow in essence, and are these principles bound by the imagination of their creator(s) or do they have different layers of meaning per se?

 Research Method:

 Since conversation pieces have a model of a paradoxical compatibility among a variety of figures, this study follows an interdisciplinary approach to interpret these paintings via Moretti’s “distant reading” in literature, the concept of "carnival" in Bakhtin's philosophy, and the philosophy of collage in painting. 

Due to the complexity of understanding the works of collage, group portraits, conversation pieces, Persian miniature and related painting styles, regarding the juxtaposition of disparate components in the same background, a pattern that helps the viewer to understand the whole work can be desirable. The order existing in the arrangement of characters and events in this kind of visualization is a manifestation of the network, which itself is the manifestation of hidden relationships among a myriad of things. In other words, what connects different parts in a network through communication lines is actually the conceptual or structural concept between them that is hidden in the body of the work, not detectable with the viewer’s unequipped eye. Franco Moretti’s “distant reading” is a technique in the context of system networks that connects "nods" or various parts through "edges" or communication lines to reveal their hidden or intangible connections. This network of connections between incompatible or incongruous parts is a manifestation of the concept of "carnival" in Mikhail Bakhtin’s philosophy, based on which the position of the figures in the pictures will not bestow them with any kind of superiority over others. In fact, the communication lines in the network can provide the nods with a variety of theoretical and conceptual relationships with one another. Accordingly, conversation pieces and similar paintings are built on the basis of networks with an orderly structure among their components, even though they are irregularly patterned. With this description, in each painting of this kind, we can draw hypothetical lines between figures and events to unveil their relationships within historical, political, social, philosophical, religious, literary, and artistic contexts. These relations to the outside world of the image also reveal the trans-organizational relations of the components and how they resonate with meanings beyond the context.

Semantics refers to searching for a final signified behind a text or exploring a semantic layer in each text in a process-oriented (rather than a product-oriented) framework. From a process-oriented point of view, a text is not limited to some deterministic meaning(s); instead, it involves a situation in which a reader can, during the reading, contribute to the production of meaning(s). Thus, in a process-oriented approach to the text, the reader is, on one hand, regarded as the subject of meaning, and the text is, on the other hand, as the context for the meaning only if there is a processed narrative. For this, a text is based on a narrative, which involves functional units governing systematic narrative functions of signs.Throughout history, various definitions were introduced about narratives, the most important of which relates to twentieth-century structuralists and Roland Barthes in particular.To Barthes, the narrative is characterized by exchange, i.e., narrative as the subject is the basis of communication; thus, a receiver and a sender are required. As a result, a narrative cannot exist without a narrator or a hearer. Although the narrator’s motives or narrative effects on the reader are not the main issues, an explanation of codes that give meaning to the narrative is the main object of a literary theory on narrative. For this, Barthes argues that narrative is a narrative code such as language which is recognized through a system of signs (semiotics). The system of signs first comes together at the level of functions and actions to finally establish a meaningful semantic communication at the narrative level between the narrator and the reader.The identification of the textual system of signs and foundations of the narrative was mainly performed by structuralist theorists in the second half of the twentieth century. Among the structuralists, Roland Barthes’ narrative codes theory was used as the basis for the semantics of Hannibal Alkhas’ work “Tablet” due to its comprehensive attitude to narratives compared to other structuralists’ semiotic theories.Hannibal Alkhas (1930-2010) was a modernist Iranian painter and the pioneer of figurative design in modernist painting. He has numerous works, and his work of art, “Tablet,” has been selected to be investigated for highlighting his distinctive and personal language compared to other modernist artists and characterizing his artistic features. Tablet is a two-part work of art involving symbolic motifs, attention to mythological motifs, and cultural elements, resulting from particular attention to formal elements, especially the element of “shape.” The goal of the present study is to gain the visual form of the work “Tablet” and realize possible meaning(s) of the text under investigation through Roland Barthes’ narrative codes theory. Narrative codes include five codes of hermeneutic, connotative, symbolic, proairetic, and cultural, which Barthes found while analyzing the story “Sarrasine” by Honoré de Balzac in 1970.Narrative codes refer to measures for our narrative. In other words, a narrative is realized through the narrative codes approach (based on a signifier and signified system), resulting in a process-oriented re-writing of the text under investigation. Therefore, it is critical to define Barthes’ five narrative codes, which include hermeneutic, connotative, symbolic, proairetic, and cultural. However, before defining them, it is essential to say that by codes, “it is meant a system of signs that generates a certain meaning and includes a set of signs and rules that govern their combination.”

Hermeneutic Codes: 

They refer to the codes formed out of differentiating different expressions that form a code to become axial, organized, and finally revealed. These codes seek to express and explain what it means to be a text in totality; thus, such codes are interpretive, and in other words, meanings arising from these codes result from interpreting texts. For example, the letter Z in the name Zambinella has a mirror relationship with the letter S in the name Sarrasine, with the two letters being graphically reversed. A relationship of this kind does exist not only in the apparent form of the two words but also in the direct reference of the two story characters, with Sarrasine’s behavior mirroring Zambinella’s moral attitudes. Here, Barthes classifies this relationship within the hermeneutic code.

Connotative (semantic) Codes:

 These codes include all the connotations that express the implicit forms of actions. This category of codes refers to distant textual meanings. For example, in a part of de Balzac’s story, “Sarrasine portrays the image of a holy father at school, instead of learning the primary element of the Greek language.” For Barthes, this image of the text connotes the meaning that Sarrasine is interested in drawing.

Symbolic Codes: 

These codes link special creatures and events to abstract and general concepts because “there is also the tendency that a symbol is no more than the private realm of imagination.” For this, a form or an event represents a general or expanded meaning in the realm of imagination.

Proairetic Codes: 

Proairetic codes include various actions integrated into the form of sequences together. The summarized form of these codes is explicit and clear significations expressed by a text in its simplest terms and readers can generally perceive it. In the meantime, these codes are the most stable meanings unless society’s perspective changes proportionate to the culture in which it arises; for example, the color red is, from an Islamic point of view, a symbolic expression of martyrdom, while this color is usually a symbolic indication of labor revolutions in western social systems.

Cultural Codes: 

Cultural codes suggest that the meaning arising from the text under investigation depends on understanding a reference to which the text has referred because “Cultural codes refer to a set of cultural significations”. In sum, this class of codes involves various codes of knowledge or philosophy to which the text continuously refers, i.e. they are references of philosophy and wisdom whose identification depends on determining a kind of body of knowledge”.In parallel with other Barthes’ views on the text, this theory views painting like a text because the quality of each narrative code as a basis for processing the meaning of the text is not limited to literature; instead, each work that its symbolic nature is perceivable, imaginable, and believable is a text. In sum, this paper aims to study a visual domain from a linguistic perspective. Therefore, the study answers two following questions: 1) What is the formal equivalence of Roland Barthes’ narrative codes in the text under investigation? 2) What are the meaning(s) of the visual forms of Roland Barthes’ narrative codes in “The Tablet”?Therefore, using library sources and Roland Barthes’ narrative codes, the present study aims to use analytical, reasoning, and inferential methods to investigate the semantics of Hannibal Alkhas’ “The Tablet”. To do this, the totality of the text is first analyzed to extract the functional units of its narrative. The identification of functional units of a narrative is decoupage (Lexie). For Barthes, lexie refers to differentiating text signification layers into readable units. Then, proportionate to the quality of each of the narrative codes (hermeneutic, connotative, symbolic, proairetic, and cultural), the formal-visual equivalence of the artwork “The Tablet” was inferentially determined to finally extract a meaning based on the processed form of the text and to direct the reader to understand the semantic themes. Semantic themes were determined within the equivalence process of formal states of narrative codes. For this, the formal-visual equivalence of hermeneutic codes, i.e. texture; the formal-visual equivalence of connotative codes, i.e. level; the formal-visual equivalence of symbolic codes, i.e. point; the formal-visual equivalence of proairetic codes, i.e. lines; and the formal- visual equivalence of cultural codes, i.e. shapes were determined to answer the second research question. As a result, hermeneutic codes represented the meanings of cohesion, order, and unity; connotative codes represented the meanings of connection, linking, marriage and fertility, plurality in unity, and life expectancy; symbolic codes represented the meanings of perfection and purification; proairetic codes represented the meanings of fertility and promotion of Christian teachings, perfection and sanctity, and cultural codes represented the meanings of attention to religious affairs, fertility, marriage, and prophethood of Jesus.

Museum narratives are ways to discover and produce meaning. The tools for producing museum narratives in museums are not only texts, but each museum action including selecting the objects as well as arranging and categorizing them, directs the visitor to move towards a different story. The present study makes a distinction between narrations and historical stories that claim to tell the “truth” about the past neutrally and without any bias. This study investigates museum narratives with a critical discourse analysis approach. According to this research, cultural documentation and production of narratives are required to be seen as one of the political methods of knowledge production and the outcome of power relations. While investigating the hidden power of narratives, the present study considers them as social constructions and the outcomes of various discourses, and investigates the challenges and opportunities of producing and reproducing museum narratives. The present essay investigates the importance of narratives in legitimizing, integrating the sensitive narratives in cultural intersection centers and the active and participatory presence of the audience in the reproduction of “democratic” narratives in the modern museums. According to the results of the present study, upon entering the marked space of the museum, the conflict on the social and individual level over the production of meanings begins, and the hegemonic narratives are a historical and cultural product and the result of the conflict between discourses and random micro and macro narratives around the museum text.The present study investigates the discursive nature of museums and museum narratives with the philosophical and theoretical assumptions of the theoretical framework of discourse analysis and reviews the challenges and opportunities of producing and reproducing narratives as a social construct and an outcome of various discourses. According to the understanding that was obtained from the common assumptions of the discourse analysis approaches, as soon as one enters the symbolic space of the museum, the conflict at the social and individual level over the production of meanings begins. Entering the discursive space of a museums is entering the conflicting field of museum discourses against each other and in the competition for the right to define the correct proposition and “truth”. Finally, hegemonic narratives, which are historical and cultural products and the results of the conflict between micro and macro narratives, give meaning to objects, categorizations, identities, etc. in a museum.In recent years, several views have been proposed about how narratives are produced in different situations. In this study, the researcher, following the related literature review of museum narratives, points out the latent power of narratives and some of the most important discourse-creating capacities of museum narratives. The present study considers the capability of narratives in four areas: legitimization, creation of coherence, cultural-intersection centers, and creation of “democratic” narratives, as decisive in favouring the modern museums.

Legitimizing Narratives:

The museums that have been inherited from the Enlightenment era have grown with the ideals of knowledge and reason. Therefore, in the first versions of museums formed in the 18th century, vast collections (royal and national collections as well as natural and geological specimens, works of art, etc.) were collected from all over the world in order to respond to “curiosities” and help studying and classifying the world. (Goswami, 2018). These documents and evidence collected by museums were grouped in line with our knowledge and perception of ourselves and the world around us and produced “knowledge”. The generated knowledge and classified information as “objective facts” have been dictated to visitors since the early 20th century in the form of educational labels, audio guides, and tours.In other words, what was conveyed to people as “reality” was actually a narrative built around a set of objects that were collected, purchased, contextualized, and displayed by people with different agendas, goals, and personal preferences. This style of narrative production and one-way communication between the museum and the visitor, in which the museum is an authentic source of knowledge and an ignorant audience who is open to receive any message, has been questioned. Greenhill introduces this style of museum narrative production as a linear process of information and does not consider it as an ideal scenario for making meaning and learning in museums (Hooper-Greenhill, 2010). In recent years, in numerous ways of producing museum narratives, the study of subjectivity has become necessary (Kidd, 2012). Narration, as Bakhtin states, is the result of the “dialogue process” between different subjects. Some narration theories are based on this idea; only part of the truth is with the narrator. At least, truth is something that is to a large extent discursively constructed (Foucault, 1980).

Coherence-Making Metanarratives:

Since the formation of the first museums, the power of nation-states has been declared through the presence and ownership of museums. Early museums were often involved in the construction of national identities and played a significant role in affirming local identity and pride (Macdonald, 2006). In the process of articulating identity in museums from the perspective of discourse analysis, identity is defined in opposition to other identities. It is in opposition to the other (cultural, historical, social, geographical, etc.) that it is determined what the subject is and what it is not. People are always called by multiple and conflicting identity discourses. Identity discourses always determine specific situations for people and call them to a specific identity (Jorgensen and Phillips, 2013). Since the identity is always organized in the form of a discourse in relation to others, sometimes in the museum, the display of the authority of one group ends up at the cost of the marginalization of another.What we observe in some museums is the involvement of a form of distortion and transformation in the creation of a museum narrative due to the complexity of some issues in museum representation, leading to the production and dominance of a comprehensive meta-narrative. The aforementioned narratives sometimes represent the world in a dangerously simplistic manner. In fact, in some museum narratives, the scattered, complex, and ambiguous nature of world events and the unpleasant stories associated with them are suppressed in favor of clarity at best, and control at worst. While according to some, creating a coherent narrative is conducted at the cost of silencing discordant voices and rejecting disputed narratives (MacLeod, Hanks, and Hale, 2012), others do believe in the unifying power of coherence-making meta-narratives.In contrast to coherence-making narratives, there are narratives that do not attempt to represent others and ignore them. Investigating museum narratives from the perspective of discourse analysis can easily represent how the museum discourse is articulated towards producing self-identity and rejecting the other. The categorization manner and competing for invitation to multiple and sometimes contradictory subject positions helps us in understanding how to articulate identity in museums. A discourse-making example of the confrontation of conflicting narratives in museums is the way macro identities are represented against the regional ones.In the historical narrative of historical museums in a traditional way, the linear approach to history is dominant. In this way, museums present a coherent narrative and an authentic mirror of history to their audience (Marstine, 2006). In this macro historical process, often dealing with the introduction and representation of prominent and significant identities, many micro and regional identities were ignored. This method of chronological representation (historical) is a characteristic of the arrangement of museum objects in many known encyclopedic museums in the world, which has often been criticized and debated. The creation of narratives that seek to communicate and hear the voices of those who have been marginalized in history has gained strength in new museology. Narration here is a kind of resistance action against the forgetting and ignoring the marginalized groups.

Narratives in cultural intersection centers:

The phenomenon of globalization has recently created conflicts, or at best, concerns for museums in multicultural societies. The increased social relations, the diversity and coexistence of different cultures, the high number of migrations and the confrontation of values have increased the need of societies to tolerate values and differences. The current cultural diversity has caused a kind of dynamic discourse in museum narratives. In today’s museums, in order to welcome more people, we need narratives that represent the inconsistencies in connecting and living with one another. For the first time, it was in the world encyclopedic museums that works from different cultures and geographies around the world were collected in. The tendency of the great and prominent museums in the world to acquire and represent the diversity of the world’s cultures brought the museums together with people from different historical, geographical, cultural and social backgrounds.On the other hand, museums as “contact zones” are a suitable platform for dialogue between cultures. By producing participatory narratives, museums change the inevitable complexity of contact zones in favor of the production of “global values”. This is why the designers of the current exhibitions try to make the narrative representations of the museums reflect the cultural diversity and “polysemy” ruling the society, along with deep investigation and research in cultural perspectives.

Democratic narratives in modern museums:

As mentioned earlier, creating a coherent narrative in museums often ends up at the cost of ignoring discordant voices and rejecting small and marginal narratives. The application of critical approaches in museum studies has brought many reactions to hearing the voices of marginalized groups in the representation of museums. In recent years, museums have accepted micro-narratives from multiple people and instead of imposing the “top-down” narrative of the exhibition organizer (curator), they have engaged in “bottom-up” interactive narratives. Perhaps we can hope that as a result of this change of approach, we will observe more diversity and democracy in the space of museums (MacLeod, Hanks, and Hale 2012).

One of the important topics that Iranian patrons and painters have dealt with in every artistic period was the illustration of the Ascension of the Prophet of Islam (PBUH). It should be considered that in Iranian painting, we are faced with two aspects of literary text and artistic text. Thus, on the one hand, the linguistic semiotic system and on the other, the visual semiotic system interact with each other. In this situation, the former, which is literary text, takes precedence over the latter, or artistic text. This is how the secret of the relationship between poetry and painting is revealed in the history of Iranian art, and many Iranian painting books have been created based on this relationship.Pakbaz considers that the prevalence of text illustration, first had been started by illustrating scientific books, then by historical and fiction ones. The theme of Ascension, which is stated in Surah Al-Isra, is reflected in Persian literature and then illustrated in Iranian painting. Although Iranian painting took its subject from the field of literature, but the painter was not completely passive in illustrating the text, and the ultimate goal of the two masters (the author and the painter) in creating Iranian painting was to illustrate the text, and perhaps the readers paid attention to the words and the images simultaneously. They read the word and then looked at the pictures, and maybe vice versa, but the important thing is that the word and the picture go hand in hand.Thus, re-reading the Ascension drawing based on Panofsky's pictorial method, which is based on three methods for analyzing the image, is effective in analyzing its semantic implications. As in this study, the relationships between the signs in this picture and their implicit meanings are examined in three semantic levels. The question is, what are the semantic implications of the image of the Ascension in Tahmasbi Fortune-telling at Panofsky's triple semantic levels? The painting is related to Tahmasbi fortune-telling attributed to Agha Mirak and has been painted in Tabriz II school. Note that, Masoumeh Farhad, considered it to the Qazvin school on page 119 of her book. The size of the painting is 45 x 60 cm and it is kept in the Arthur Sackler Collection in the United States. According to Kerry Welch, the creation of this work began in 947 A.H. and ended in 957 A.H.Panofsky in reading the images, believed in the following three dimensions. The first level is pre-iconographic description, the second level is iconographic analysis, and the third level is iconographic interpretation.In the pre-iconographic description of this image we can see that there is no text. Here are eight figures. The central figure is mounted on a horse with a human head, and the other seven figures, each with two wings behind them, stand with their faces toward the figure. The central figure grabs the horse by the left hand and raises his right hand, which also has a ring on his finger. Right in front of this ring, from above and to the left, a roaring lion looks at the ring. Each of the seven winged figures hold something in their hands. A bar attached to a green triangular flag is seen in the hand of the left winged figure in an orange dress, and in both hands of the lower left winged figure in the yellow dress there are a pair of golden shoes.If we look at the concepts of the elements of this painting at the level of iconographic analysis, we can see that this scene depicts a part of the Muslims' beliefs about the Ascension of the Prophet by a horse called Buraq. A horse with a human head and a lion tail. The man on the horseback is the Prophet of Islam who ascended to the heavens according to a verse from Quran.At the level of the iconic interpretation of the painting, it can be seen that although the Ascension is the main subject in this painting, it seems that many texts have also mentioned this form of human mental and physical changes. Jacob’s Ladder after being called by Isaac to go to Mesopotamia. Shamanic texts also refer to winged horses that ascension took place by them. The ascension of Ardaviraf is mentioned in the book of Ardavirafnameh. We can also mention the Ascension of Goshtasp.In the inscriptions of Kartir, except the Cube of Zoroaster, the subject of Kartir's Ascension is narrated too. In the Ascension paintings of the Safavid period, the hijab of the face became one of the main features of the iconography of the Prophet (PBUH) and continued until the period of Shah Tahmasb. For example, in the painting of Ascension by Sultan Mohammad, the face of the Prophet is covered and had a Safavid veil. In the painting of Ascension from Habib al-Siyar, the Prophet is at the center of the work and his face is covered. All the angels are look at the Prophet and each of them has a gift as a sign of respect and welcome. On the Buraq’s face, we can see some points which are important from the iconological point of view. There are many hadiths and narrations about Buraq. Majlisi says that Buraq has an elongated body, bigger than donkey and smaller than mule, and understands everything he sees like a human being.A noteworthy point in the iconic interpretation stage of this painting is that the effects of Safavid and Shiite mysticism on the concept of Ascension in the Safavid era, in this painting, are characterized by the presence of signs that refer to the concepts of the Shiite school. Like the lion that is referred to as Assadollah, the ring that is given to the Imamate and successor of Ali (AS), the sword (Zulfiqar) and the green flag which are known as the symbols of Shiism. The relationship between religion and politics is the most important feature of the Safavid rule. In other words, the King considered one of the duties of his rule to be the preservation and promotion of the foundations of the Shiite religion.The principle of Imamat, which has always been one of the important issues in the history of Islam, as the right of Imam Ali (AS) to succeed the Prophet, became the most central principle shared and agreed upon by the Shiites. Shiite elements that have influenced Iranian-Islamic art or found a way to express themselves through it are a combination of beliefs, myths, and events in Shiite history. Among these events, we can mention the right of the leadership of the ummah after the Prophet by Imam Ali (AS). According to the available narrations, in order to prove their imamate, the Imams (AS) have emphasized the possession of imamat heirlooms and deposits.These heirlooms and deposits sometimes included things that no one had ever seen and only the Imams mentioned their existence to them. Items such as Adam's shirt, Solomon's ring, Joseph's shirt, Moses' staff or tablets and clothing etc. Some other heirlooms, which include objects and accessories that have been specifically attributed to the Prophet, in other words, symbolize the emphasis on the successor to the Prophet, which are: The Prophet's sword, weapon, staff and turban, as well as the sword of Imam Ali (AS). Despite the fact that the lion is one of the most frequent symbols in ancient Iran, in this picture, it emphasizes the idea that Imam Ali (AS) was present on the night of Ascension. Yet, it should be noted that the celestial journey of the perfect man, which is a divine and heavenly attribute for the chosen human beings, came from the Ilkhanate painting to the Shiite Islamic arts. Therefore, in the stage of iconic interpretation, the pictorial elements that refer to Shiite concepts, parallel to the symbols from ancient Iran, present a new artistic expression of the Ascension narrative. Also, the presence of Imam Ali (AS) on the night of Ascension, along with the Prophet, along with the concept of Assadollah and Ali’s sword, who always defeated the infidels with the Prophet and finally, the ring of the Caliphate and the succession of Ali (AS), refers to the connection between religion and government in the Safavid era.

The famous Kitâb al-Diryâq of the National Library of France, which was written and illustrated by Muhammad ibn Abi al-Fath ‘Abd al-Wahhab ibn Abi al-Hassan ibn Abi al-Abbas Ahmad in Rabi‘ al-Awwal 595 A. H. in Iranian Kufic script(cursive), is famous for its beautiful writing and page images. The page layout of this manuscript, which is centered on the arrangement of text and its creative combination with images, can be considered as an excellent example of typography in the history of Iranian calligraphy. The purpose of studying this manuscript is to analyze its script and typography elements to introduce it as a source of inspiration for contemporary typography. Typography, as a branch of Graphic Design, has specific principles and rules, that applying them in a work of art would turn it into an outstanding one. The al-Diryâq book available in the National Library of France has a high level of such characteristics. The principled and well-considered layout of the text, the variety of font sizes in the lines, the variety of colors and the original composition have made this manuscript very rich in terms of graphics. In the arrangement of letters, words and lines, the positive and negative spaces are carefully adjusted. The form proportion in the calligraphy of this manuscript is well considered and the elements of the composition are well adjacent. This manuscript has many and valuable graphical aspects, and the scribe's artistic taste has had a significant effect on the beauty and uniqueness of it and its script. Among the distinguishing items of this manuscript, is the common way of writing during the production of it. The book size, the colours , the pagination, the style of illustrations, the type of paper and many other things that were common during the Seljuk era had an effect on the distinctiveness of the manuscript.Typography means the arrangement of letters and words based on aesthetic principles, in order to convey the written message as best as possible. The type of arrangement of letters and words and changes in the form and size of letters can be effective in connecting the typography text with the subject and conveying the message as much as possible. But typography, in the sense of arranging letters and words in order to convey the written message as much as possible, has a much longer history and it can even be claimed that it goes back to the history of the alphabet and writing. Along with many examples obtained from great and ancient civilizations, we also come across examples of typography in Iranian historical works. In Iran, the title of typography can be referred to more diverse and abundant examples, including calligraphy, which includes calligraphy and other types of it, letter design and the simultaneous use of script and image, which is contrary to the meaning and definition of western typography, which emphasizes the use of typefaces. With these definitions, typography in Iran is older than typography in its western and contemporary sense, and as a result, we can get an approximate meaning of "Iranian typography". As a branch of contemporary Graphic Design, typography in Iran is widely used in the design of posters, book cover titles, magazine layouts, etc. Considering the need of contemporary Graphic Design to the support of Iranian visual tradition, the examination of the typography of the Kufic script of the Paris al-Diryâq as a script with Iranian origin and visual richness in the field of typography can be a source of rich inspiration in this field, which has been less studied. Typography analysis of this manuscript can be used in the contemporary typography. The Kufic script of the Kitâb al-Diryâq is arranged and composed throughout the pages of the book in such a way that by further examination of it, the very precise and well-considered principles intended for typography can be obtained. All the pages of this book are arranged according to the rules of typography with the arrangement of words and letters. Also, each of these pages has a unique composition and arrangement, follows the principles, and has a special visual appeal. While the page grid is fixed, it has a high capability for creating various writing and page layout, and varies based on the text and the importance of the letters, words and sentences. The words in the page layout of this manuscript are sometimes normal, exaggerated and unusual. Despite having novel features and rich compositions as well as unique typography, this manuscript has been less investigated in terms of typography and graphical aspects. The present study tries to investigate the typography of the Kufic script of Paris Kitâb al-Diryâq by recognising the graphical aspects of its calligraphy and analyzing the its typography, so that its capabilities would be known and used in contemporary graphic design. This paper studies this manuscript from the perspective of graphical and typographical features, in addition to examining the Kufic script of it. Based on this, this article seeks to investigate what kind of Kufic script is written in the al-Diryâq manuscript of the National Library of France? How much legibility and Visual space does this manuscript have? What is the baseline, line spacing, kerning, tracking, leading, and text structure? The research method of this research is descriptive-analytical and its data collected through library information. The analysis method of this paper is based on qualitative studies, and in terms of purpose, it is fundamental. The result of this research shows that the al-Diryâq manuscript of the National Library of France, with the help of the Iranian Kufic script (cursive) and the personal style of the artist, the regular and beautiful rhythm in the letters and lines, the high readability of the writing and the unique compositions, has the characteristics of a proportional typography. All typography characteristics are applied in it, which is rare in its time and shines in the history of Iranian typography. The letters have a certain and regular spacing that creates a kind of rhythm. There is a calculated distance between the letters, which leads the eye from one word to the next word and leads to a more fluent reading of the text. Each part of these texts is separated from other lines by a certain size, which has a great effect on the order and beauty of the book's typography. The common diameter has created a lot of harmony in the letters.Circular compositions create symmetry and divide pages into two parts. The arrangement of words on both sides of the circle has created a different, symmetrical and beautiful composition. The similar structure of the letters makes the script strong and stable. As a result of grading pages, each page is divided into several parts, each of which has its own different texture. Fluent visual reading and understanding of the written message is easily possible. At the same time, the compositions are very innovative and unconventional, which is rare in its time. Dynamic, visual appeal, formal harmony and flexible grading have made this manuscript distinctive in terms of graphics and typography. Therefore, the al-Diryâq of the National Library of France is considered as an excellent example of typography in the history of Iranian calligraphy among Its contemporary and later manuscripts. Also, this manuscript, while respecting the principles of typography, has creative deconstructions in the composition, which distinguishes it in the history of Iranian manuscripts and shows that it has the ability to influence contemporary graphic design and can be a source of inspiration for many graphic works, especially typography.Table No. 1 deals with the study and analysis of the graphical aspects of the Kufic script of the al-Diryâq manuscript of the National Library of France, as an excellent example of typography in the history of Iranian calligraphy. Table 1: The study of the Kufic script of the al-Diryâq in the National Library of France, as an excellent example of typography in the history of Iranian calligraphy

In Islamic architecture, the pulpit is connected with the position of the mosque and the altar, and as one of the additional elements in the mosques, it is considered as an example of religious art. The pulpit next to the altar is one of the spiritual, symbolic, practical, and material points in mosques, which has always increased its greatness throughout the history of Islamic art and architecture. Especially in the Islamic era, it has played a significant role as an influential media with two functions of informing and teaching. Based on this, the pulpit is considered one of the most valuable works of Muslims' art throughout history and one of the best examples of the combination of beauty and efficiency in Islamic art, which Muslim architects always tried to decorate it. In this regard, they have carved Quranic verses, prophetic hadiths, the names of sultans, the names of the producers of the pulpit, and the production date on the pulpits and decorated them beautifully with special Islamic methods such as stars and Arabic lines. In between, the skillful decoration of pulpits that has continued in Islamic lands such as Iran is also important, which was based on a random tradition, in a clichéd form. It can be said that the shapes and designs used in the decoration of pulpits are generally geometric shapes (line, angle, square, cube, polygon, cone, spiral, circle, and sphere). From their combination, new designs, grids, and stars are drawn, also, Islamic and herbal motifs are used inside them. In addition to mosques, the presence of pulpits is also seen in other fields such as painting. Persian painting is the most important image source that tells about something in the past. Persian Painting, despite the small number of paintings with pulpit, has been able to draw it as a religious, political, aesthetic, and effective element in space staging. Persian painting, as an image influenced by religious concepts and values, has a main branch in depicting holy and religious subjects. This branch has always been full of personalities, events, elements, and religious symbols and has been responsible for social, political, cultural, and other responsibilities in different periods. Among these, two types of religious depictions can be listed: 1) Depicting religious subjects (images of saints and prophets with religious elements in a religious settings), 2) Depicting non-religious subjects (depicting non-religious people with religious elements and symbols), which is the pulpit element in the first group was visible.Meanwhile, depictions of the pulpit element are mostly seen in the paintings of the Timurid and Safavid periods, to the extent that in the Timurid period, a significant number of paintings had religious themes and elements such as the pulpit. During the Timurid period, examples of the pulpit are often seen in the paintings related to the schools of Herat and Shiraz. Also, in the Safavid period, with the choice of the Shiite religion as the official religion, religious thoughts took on a new and serious form, and from this point of view, the narration and illustration of books and religious elements were taken into consideration, among which the role of the pulpit is important. In addition, the pulpit and speech are related to politics, and as a result, more attention is paid to portraying it. According to this, we can justify the bold presence of the pulpit element in Safavid paintings, in which painters created an atmosphere different from other spaces by using their objective and mental experiences. It can be seen in most of the paintings related to Qazvin, Mashhad, and Isfahan schools. Therefore, it is possible to reveal the characteristics and formal and visual changes of the pulpit depending on the paintings of these two periods.The purpose of the present research is to investigate the form of the pulpit in the painting of the Timurid and Safavid periods with an emphasis on geometric motifs to identify the similarities and differences between them. The questions are as follows: What are the formal and visual features of the pulpit in the paintings of the Timurid and Safavid periods, and what are their similarities and differences? This research was carried out with a descriptive-analytical method and a comparative approach, and it is fundamental and practical in terms of its purpose. Information has been collected in two ways: the library and the internet. Sampling was purposeful and the statistical population, due to the limitation of paintings with pulpit role, was determined in the number of twelve images (five images belonging to the Timurid period and seven images from the Safavid period). The data analysis was done qualitatively and with a formalistic approach to show the aesthetic features of the "pulpit". In this regard, the findings of the research have been analyzed by emphasizing the form and geometric motifs using Tatarkiewicz's semantic implications for form. He has proposed five semantic implications for form, which this research has taken into consideration regarding form in visual art; the form in the meaning of the second and third groups, i.e. form "B" and "C". Regarding the analysis based on form "B", attention was paid to the representative and figurative forms of pulpits and their components, height and appearance were mentioned. Also, the emphasis is on abstract forms, that is, motifs that are examined in the form of contour lines and colors. In connection with the "C" form, the outlines in the motifs are examined, and then it also deals with the conceptual recognition of the geometric motifs used in the pulpits. The necessity of this research is that the pulpit is visually full of decorations and can represent the art, symbolic concepts, structure, and artistic relations of the considered periods. Also, less research has been done in the field of religious elements and speeches, especially the pulpit in Persian painting. It has not been sufficiently investigated through the lens of the painting of different eras and especially the formal and visual relationships. Therefore, this article can be an attempt to solve this deficiency.The results show that based on the type "B" form; In the figurative form of the pulpit, the parts of the body, steps, seats, gates, and fences are used. However, it can be seen that the railings were not used in the pulpits of the Safavid era. The most concentration and use of motifs in both periods are in the "body" part of the pulpit. Also, the pulpits are depicted from sideview and oblique view, and the oblique pulpits have a better and more beautiful appearance. Due to the side view of most of the pulpits, the approximate height of each pulpit can be recognized according to the number of steps or through the surrounding lines. The number of stairs varies from 2 to 10 and they are medium and tall in terms of height. In fact, despite the minimum number of steps in some images, the height of the pulpits seems to be average. A total of 11 geometric patterns have been used in the abstract form of the pulpits. Meanwhile, the geometric patterns in the pulpits of the Timurid era have a higher diversity and density than the Safavid era. In addition, the use of Islamic and Khataee motifs was also evident in the pulpits which is more limited than geometric patterns, but it is used in 5 patterns; although they have been used more in Safavid pulpits. The abstract form was used in both periods, on one hand, based on type "C" in the form of surrounding lines of motifs, and on the other hand, in both cases, the "B" form, that is, the border or surrounding lines that create the shape of the pattern, as well as the color, has been used. Among these, the predominance of the use of form "C" in Timurid pulpits is in the form of outlines and design, while in Safavid pulpits, the type of color dependent on form "B" is used more.

Figures of Aja'ib al-Makhluqat (creation wonders) written by Shams-oddin Muhammad Bin Ahmad Salmani Tusi and illustrated tiles of Salam hall in Golestan complex have images focusing on wonder creatures. By studying these figures it's recognizable that there are similarities between these images. The similarities and shape connection between works of two periods, make them suitable case studies for surveying such creatures. Purpose of this project is identifying visual and pictorial quality of some Iranian miniature visual elements by surveying the connection between the figures of Salam hall and Aja'ib al-Makhluqat. Based on this, this article attempts to find answer to this question: What kind of visual connection is there between figures of wonder creatures of Salam hall and Aja'ib Al-Makhluqat? This project is fundamental and adopts the descriptive-analytical and comparative method. Information and sources are based on library and field studies. Research on selected figures shows that miniaturists had used visual expression, they also contain creation of atmosphere and symbol, pictorial elements, snout, wing, tail, etc., visual elements, color, form, and texture, composition, triangle and circle. These have similar pictorial and visual qualities. The difference in terms of coloring is limited and tiles themes in Salam hall has a more dynamic character compared to Aja'ib al-Makhluqat figures. These images are categorized into 4 groups: 1- Strange creatures(combined) and dragon 2- hybrid animals (having natural parts of animals) 3- animals mixed with strange creatures 4- human mixed with animals. The figures of Tusi Aja'ib al-Makhluqat, mentioned in the text, are depicted from wonder creatures in terms of pictorial qualities they are unique. It's probable that the book is written in Nastaliq script by an Iranian calligrapher in 10th century AH.in Ottoman Turkey.The book has 181 images in different sizes and represents unique symbolism in all Iranian versions. The red leather cover of this book is not contemporaneous with the manuscript and probably dates back to the 13th century AH. Salam hall, which is located in the north west of Golestan complex next to Khalvat Karim Khani, is the first royal and state Museum of Iran founded by Naser al-Din Shah. Wonder creature tiles of Salam hall are in octagonal, circle, and one in hexagon frame with warm colors of brown, partly yellow, and red with blue ultramarine background. These pictures attributed to the second half of the 19th century. The frequency of the tiles frame shapes with wonder creatures of the Salam hall in Golestan Palace This Project has chosen 5 images over 181 images of Aja'ib al-Makhluqat, 5 images over 31 images of Salam hall according to wonder creatures and pictorial similarities categories. To answer the proposed question in the research, the selected images will be matched together. In the same vein, the desired topics of case studies of Tusi Aja'ib al-Makhluqat and Salam hall By observing selected images, we find that there is a wide variety of figures, types, and themes in glazes tiles of Salam hall in Golestan complex which are mostly combinations of traditional and western manners of painting and that's why the integrity and unity of Tusi's Ajaib-al-Makhluqat figures cannot be seen in them. In other words, the combination of Iranian painting qualities with western manners and principles has resulted in a kind of contrast and dualism. Colors are mainly warm and earthly. This quality and tendency to naturalism and realism has made an earthly atmosphere in figures of Golestan complex compared to Tusi's Ajaib-al-Makhluqat and Safavid period and before and they are rather envisioning of corporeal world than spiritual and utopian world in former samples. On the other hand, the existence of noticeable and precious samples such as tiles of Golestan complex contradicts with what is supposed in Qajar period tiles. Generally, based on found results, these creatures in terms of visual and pictorial qualities have a wide variety in combination and fusion that each combined member can symbolize something. Wonder creatures are reflections of truths that exist in the real world and in Qajar period had been widely used due to spread of imaginations, fantasies, magic, and spells. In Tusi's Ajaib-al-Makhluqat, creatures are depicted from old tales, legends and religious stories.

Human's life is full of symbols. In the field of art, colours have long had a symbolic meaning. In the late nineteenth century, the symbolism movement began with the declaration of symbolism in France, and the painting of ideas was defined by Albert Orber in connection with the visual arts. Gustav Klimt was a symbolist painter and, like an emotional poet, tried to embody general and abstract concepts such as life, death, music, lust and jealousy with symbolic lines and colours. Eugene Schiele was one of his students in the expressionist style of painting and was influenced by his master's symbolic style. The authors answer the research question with descriptive-analytical research method and library information collection method. This study is a comparative study of Gustave Klimt's painting "The Kiss" and Eugene Schiele's painting "Cardinal and the Nun (Meditation)". The research question is to compare and evaluate the effect of these two paintings from the perspective of the symbolic meaning of colours on the emotional perception of the audience? The result of this research shows that although the two works of art have a common theme, the artists have paid attention to their purpose and feelings in choosing the colours. Depending on the choice of colours, one effect induces a sense of anxiety and fear and the other effect induces a sense of interest and love to the audience.Artistic styles and techniques have been created according to the culture, social conditions and geography of each place. Symbolism was a reaction to the school of Impressionism as well as the principles of realism. Expressionism was also a reaction to symbolism. The symbolists conveyed all their intentions through the symbols. Expressionists expressed their emotions, especially fear, anxiety, and love, through colour; They exaggerated in the use of colour and drawing. Colour has a special place in the lives of humans and artists. By seeing the colours used in the art of any culture and society, one can understand the feelings of the people of that culture. Colours can define a person's mood and also create a special halo or energy in the atmosphere.Colour has existed in human life since time immemorial. Until the nineteenth century, only a few dyes and pigments were known, most of which were organic in origin and very expensive, but today humans use synthetic materials to produce multiple and cheaper dyes. Colours are present in all human life and are very important and are a part of our lives. Spectacular and visible colours have different effects on nature and the human mind. Every colour has a use and meaning in every place. The perception and interpretation of each colour is different in each culture. Colour symbolism is universal; It is one of the most important symbolic systems of man. Colours evoke what it symbolizes.The statistical population of this research is the painting "The Kiss" by Gustav Klimt and the painting "Cardinal and the Nun (Meditation)" by Eugene Schiele. In this study, the authors conducted a comparative study of the colours of the painting "The Kiss" by Gustave Klimt and the painting "Cardinal and the Nun (Meditation)" by Eugene Schiele, which is the purpose of this study. Also, what effect do these two paintings have on the emotional perception of the audience in terms of the symbolic meaning of colours?The present study is based on collecting library information method with a fundamental purpose and descriptive-analytical method to answer the question and purpose of this research. The simultaneous and historical comparative method as well as the study of the statistical population of this research to determine the common, conceptual and symbolic differences between these two paintings. The type of this research is qualitative. The statistical population of this research is two paintings by two artists with the style of symbolism and expressionism; These include the painting "The Kiss" by Gustave Klimt and the painting "Cardinal and the Nun (Meditation)" by Eugene Schiele.The sampling of this research is purposeful and by selecting two paintings by two artists with the style of symbolism and expressionism that have the same theme, but each artist has chosen colours and each colour has a symbolic meaning and these colours have affected the emotional perception of the audience. This research first uses a descriptive method to define modern Western art, symbolism, expressionism, symbolic concepts of colours, and the biography of Klimt and Schiele, and then analyzes the symbolic meanings of the colours used in the two paintings.Kiss is the most famous work of Klimt from his golden age (1898-1908), which has used gilding in most of his masterpieces. Klimt began The Kiss in 1907. Klimt called this painting lovers, but today it is better known as The Kiss. This time in The Kiss, like many of his previous works, he does not portray society as a scandal. From the very beginning, this painting was noticed and admired, and this can be seen in its rapid sale. This painting has become a symbol of New Vienna art. The two figures in the kiss painting are wearing strange clothes that have been carefully decorated. Klimt has used more gold, brown, emerald green and yellow. The artist uses the golden colour in the background to create depth in the work. The painting has no straight lines and is full of curves and curved lines. The male face is not seen in Klimt's kiss painting. He holds the woman up; He presses his hands to the woman's face with a delicate gesture, but his face is away from her arms: he just offers his cheek for a kiss and his hand almost tries to hold her away.In Eugene Schiele's "Nun and Cardinal (Meditation)" painting, the eyes are full of excruciating anxiety. Anxiety about Christian temptation and sin. It is as if the nun is staring into the eyes of someone who sees her committing such a corruption; However, the Cardinal also has a glimpse of this dazzling. The hands, which are often the strangest forms in Schiele paintings, are in a state that can be seen in Christian paintings and statues, but ultimately both their figures and their proximity can be attributed to the figures of Klimt; the same painting that Schiele has been most influenced by. For Schiele, the connection is the wear and tear of the figures, except that the sexual act is highlighted here, even though in the red shadow of the cardinal sin. Schiele called this strange feeling of shame "embrace". The composition is triangular - a shape that always refers to the strength of power structures and their strong attachment to the ground. The issue of sexual and moral corruption in the church is not unusual in itself.Artists have influenced each other over time, depending on the circumstances. These effects can be in the use of colour, subject matter, art style, symbols, and so on. Students have been impressed by their teachers. The greatest influence in Schiele's painting "Cardinal and the Nun (Meditation)" is from Klimt's painting "Kiss", which was drawn by Klimt five years ago.In this research, the symbolic meanings of the colours used in the painting "The Kiss" by Klimt and the painting "Cardinal and the Nun" by Schiele have been studied. Also, what effects do these two paintings have on the emotional perception of the audience in terms of the symbolic meaning of colours? Although they have the same theme, each of these paintings gives a different feeling to the audience. One expresses love and affection and the other is fear and anxiety, which is due to the choice of colour by the artist, and the difference in the choice of colours is related to the artistic style, mind and feelings of the two artists. Klimt has used positive and light colours in this painting, but Schiele has used dark and negative colours, each of which has a symbol and meaning.Artists have been able to use these colours to communicate their intentions to the audience. Klimt has used the colours of gold, brown and yellow more, which symbolizes and expresses glory, love, care, safety and success. Yellow is a symbol of activity and ambition. Emerald green is the colour of spring and a symbol of youth and vitality. Brown is a symbol of trust, comfort, intimacy and stability. He also used red colour in the decoration of women's clothes, which is a symbol of fertility and love.Schiele in this painting of dark colours, used black, more than brown. Green and red are also seen. Black is a symbol of secrecy. Brown indicates earth and materialism. Red is the colour of passion, passion and passionate behavior. It is also a warning to not continue and not to move forward, a passionate and daring behavior. Schiele has used red in men's clothing, which is a symbol of masculine power. The sludge green colour indicates deterioration, obsolescence and erosion.