مجله پژوهش های برنامه درسی
سال دوازدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 24، پاییز و زمستان 1401)

The purpose of this study was to identify factors affecting flipped teaching in higher education. Although flipped teaching method is a new method in the field of education, a lot of research has been done on it due to its importance. Therefore, in the present study, to avoid duplication and conduct comprehensive research, previous studies were examined carefully utilizing meta-synthesis to determine the factors affecting flipped teaching. For this purpose, the researchers sought to address the following questions: What are the factors affecting flipped teaching in higher education? How can the relationship between these factors and the success of flipped teaching be explained? The present study was mixed in terms of data type, using both qualitative and quantitative data. The statistical population included all valid research articles related to the subject published in the last 10 years (2011-2021) and registered in specialized and scientific databases inside and outside the country. Sixty studies were purposefully selected using Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP). Sandelowski and Barroso’s (2006) seven-step method was used for the qualitative analysis of the selected studies. In addition, the data were analyzed using a researcher-made checklist and Thematic Content Analysis (TCA). Researcher self-monitoring and the coefficient of agreement were used to assess the validity and reliability of findings, respectively. Through coding, four factors affecting flipped teaching were identified, which included structural, educational, interpersonal, and individual factors. The structural theme included change in methods and support of managers. Flipped teaching synchronized the structure of the university with technology and provided students with a better idea of the university. Also, the findings showed that the rapid growth of technology affected educational structures, paving the way for the application of constructivist approaches in teaching-learning processes and the realization of inclusiveness in education. One of the changes that emerged from the data was the transition from traditional teaching methods, which were associated with over-reliance on knowledge and memory, to flipped teaching. This change in approach from teachercentered to student-centered classrooms engaged learners with high-level of cognitive skills. The educational theme highlighted the point that the main role of teachersin flipped classrooms was to design teaching materials with careful planning, which should aim at promoting comprehensive learning that included experiments, projects, and hands-on work. Accordingly, in writing a lesson plan, the instructor must know exactly where to start and what activities can best facilitate the fulfillment of lesson objectives. To this end, he/she must both broaden and deepen his/her level of knowledge. As a result, flipped teaching can foster the development of both students and teachers. Based on the interpersonal concept, interaction in flipped classrooms should be a constant flow that continues before and after the class. Flipped teaching, in addition to increased teacher and inclusive interactions, emphasizes the value of interactions between students. In a flipped classroom, more group discussion takes place, and students can take advantage of in-class opportunities to focus on practical skills, projects, and troubleshooting. The individual concept is concerned with the individual characteristics of teachers and learners/students and their role in the success of flipped teaching. Many instructors find it difficult to change their teaching methods. In this regard, flipped teaching allows teachers to distance themselvesfrom traditional methods and welcome students’ increasing tendency to utilize electronic devices, such as telephones, computers, and so on, in their studies. The abovementioned four central concepts, namely, structural, educational, interpersonal, and individual, not only overlap but also affect each other. To sum up, university administrators are encouraged to support changes in teaching methods, which, in turn, can facilitate teachers’ professional development and present the university as a scientific place that welcomes technological advances. These all will eventually lead to higher student satisfaction and success. Furthermore, education, particularly when enhanced with careful planning and appropriate content, time, place, and evaluation, can promote interpersonal interactions, increase students’ and teachers’ motivation, and, consequently, improve students’ academic achievement . Moreover, flipped teaching was found to be an effective method during the covid-19 pandemic. Students received the course content online and, having studied the materials, evaluation was done by the instructor in offline classes. The results of the present study showed that young learners were more accustomed to technological environments due to their familiarity with them. Therefore, using flipped teaching in higher education can be more productive than traditional methods of teaching. In this regard, it is suggested that administrators and university presidents encourage teachers to use flipped teaching by providing them with the required technological equipment. Teachers are invited to adopt this method of teaching to promote independent learning in students via virtual environments and appropriate use of technology. This is hoped to foster deep and meaningful learning in studentssince in our fast-changing world, students need to learn “how to learn” and become lifelong learners and creators, rather than receivers, of knowledge.

Although students share many similarities, they are uniquely different in many ways. In the field of education, these differences are of crucial importance, and failing to heed them frustrates the realization of educational justice. According to international education policies, schools are expected to contribute to the promotion of justice and social equality through relevant curricula and justice-based processes. They play an essential role in providing equal opportunities by celebrating individual differences, interests, and abilities. Paying attention to the individual differences of students in schools can play an important role in upholding the purpose of education. Implementing a curriculum that recognizes individual differences through the personalization of learning can promote the goals of education. Many theories, including child-centered education (Dewey, 1902(, cognitive development theory (Piaget & Inhelder, 1972), sociocultural theory and zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978), and the theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1987) have all established theoretical foundations that highlight individual differences in education. Educational research, however, has not paid enough attention to these theories. The importance of individual differences and their implications for curriculum design have not been explored fully yet. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate which theories supported the importance and inclusion of learners’ individual differences in curriculum design and what implications each of those differences could have for different elements of the curriculum. The present study used a qualitative method to design a school curriculum. For this purpose, six theories, including sociocultural theory, mastery learning model, brain-based learning theory, cognitive style theory, theory of learning styles, and theory of multiple intelligences, in the field of psychology were examined. Each of these six theories emphasizes the existence of individual differences between human beings from a different perspective. These six theories were chosen among others following educational experts’ recommendations regarding their importance to education and potential implications for the elements of the curriculum. To design the curriculum based on each of these theories, Akker’s (2003) curriculum spider web was used because of its comprehensiveness concerning different curriculum elements. This curriculum model has nine strings, including aims and objectives, content, materials and resources, learning activities, teacher role, assessment, time, location, and grouping, and a core called ‘rationale’, to which the other nine elements are ideally connected. To draw some implications for each of the above elements of the curriculum, each of the aforementioned six theories and their basic principles were examined. The initial implications drawn by the authors were evaluated and reevaluated to determine the final implications. The Delphi technique was used to validate the list of implications. That is, the implications extracted from each theory, along with the explanation of the theory and its principles, were presented to a relevant group of experts. Then, the list of implications extracted from the six theories underwent necessary changes based on the experts’ ideas and reflections. The experts were selected using purposeful criterion sampling. The criteria considered in this study for sample selection included relevant academic education, academic publishing (e.g., articles, books, etc.), and general expertise related to the six theories referred to above. After examining each theory and exploring its significance to the ten elements of the curriculum spider web, a final attempt was made to breathe diversity and plurality into the curriculum. It was explained to the curriculum planners that learners were different in basic areas, such as socio-cultural background and zone of proximal development (sociocultural theory), the time required for learning (mastery learning theory), brain structure and schema (brain-based learning theory), information processing: thinking, understanding, and remembering information (cognitive style theory), the preferred method of learning skills (theory of learning styles), and IQ profile (theory of multiple intelligences). The inferences as well as the principles, including the principle of the centrality of the learner, the principle of inclusive education, the principle of diversity and plurality, and the principle of flexibility, drawn from each of the theories were used to support the development of the curriculum and its elements so that it would be more in, rather than out of, tune with the real world of students and their interests. With the implementation of such a learner-centered and inclusive curriculum, education processes are hoped to operate more equitably and with greater accountability than traditional education systems. Ensuring that each student experiences the maximum opportunity to learn is a goal that should be promoted through individualization and personalization in policy and curriculum development.

The world community is currently experiencing a fourth industrial revolution (4IR), which is established on the third industrial revolution (digital revolution) and the convergence of technologies. This movement blurs the lines between physical, digital, and biological technologies. In fact, digitalization is the backbone of the 4IR, through which different technologies and disciplines of science converge, leading to the emergence of new sciences and technologies, such as artificial intelligence, virtual reality, IoT, and big data technologies. In a general process, the phenomenon of the 4IR brings about great changes in various aspects of life, including new working styles, new technologies, and new products, which are all driven by and receptive to creativity. One of the most important elements of higher education is the curriculum, which is the basis for the formation of learning. In the era of the 4IR, due to the profound effects brought about, challenges presented by, and opportunities afforded by the evolving technologies, curricula play a crucial role in adapting students to the accelerating pace of technological changes. Higher education curricula need to work in tandem with the wave of changes introduced by the 4IR. In this regard, higher education curricula are expected to help students, as an important part of the society and workforce, develop the knowledge, abilities, and skills needed to live and work in the era of the 4IR. The passivity of the curriculum in the face of this revolution gives grounds for backwardness. In view of the above and given the importance of higher education curricula, studying curricula from different perspectives and aspects is vital. Therefore, in the present study, the characteristics of higher education curricula in the era of the 4IR are laid out and discussed.

This study employed a qualitative content analysis that involved the inductive approach. The statistical population of the study included valid scientific sources (i.e., documents/books/articles) related to higher education curricula in the era of the 4IR during 2016-2021. This period was selected since the 4IR is a new concept, no relevant sources related to it were found before 2016. Out of 25 identified sources, nine that best met the objectives of this study were selected as the study sample using purposive sampling. Themes were used as the unit of analysis. Data were collected using search engines, such as Google Scholar, and databases, such as Emerald, Eric, Science Direct, Springer, etc., with the help of indexes and keywords.

The results of the content analysis revealed 12 main organizing themes as follows: continuous learning: at any time in any place, individualized and personalized education, globallyconnected education, platform thinking based on new technologies, social curriculum based on moral, social, and cultural responsibilities, skills development with emphasis on soft skills, integration of higher education and industry 4.0 in the context of technology 4.0, innovative education, project-oriented learning, teacher as a guide and consultant, reevaluation of the curriculum consistent with the era of the 4IR, and convergence of sciences. At a higher level, the main organizing themes were subsumed under a more comprehensive theme called curriculum paradigm shift.

 Discussion and Conclusions:

In sum, it can be stated that the advances and changes in the field of science and technology in the era of the 4IR will continue to push not only scientific but also geographical boundaries with an increasing speed, giving birth to novel areas of science. Therefore, universities and higher education institutes should constantly review and assess their curricula from different perspectives to adapt to the rapid pace of technological advances and orient their outlook on the future. It must be highlighted that in the era of the 4IR, the incorporation of advanced technologies and digital education in the curricula is more than a purely technical concern. In other words, a technology-enabled curriculum is not a simple matter of digitizing existing content and making it available online. Rather, it serves as a fertile platform that can create new learning cultures and enable students to deal with challenges and grasp the opportunities that have only begun to exist due to digitization.

The goals of higher education are achieved when the curriculum is designed in line with the needs, abilities, and interests of students. Therefore, to assess the effectiveness of the curricula in various fields, it is necessary to heed students’ abilities. Thus, this research aimed to examine the relationship between the effectiveness of the curriculum and students’ abilities by taking into account the moderating role of the quality of learning experiences.

Research Hypotheses:

This study sought to examine two main hypotheses. The first hypothesis posited a positive relationship between the effectiveness of the curriculum and students’ abilities. According to the second hypothesis, the quality of learning experiences played a moderating role in the relationship between curriculum effectiveness and students’ abilities.

This study adopted a descriptive correlational design. The statistical population of the study included all students of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences who had matriculated in 1400. Stratified random sampling was used and 380 students were selected as study participants. To test the research hypotheses, structural equation models were employed using the partial least squares (PLC) approach.

The results of the hypothesis testing showed that the effectiveness of the curriculum had a positive relationship with students’ abilities and its components (i.e., personal, interpersonal, and cognitive). Also, the results showed that the quality of learning experiences played a moderating role in the relationship between the effectiveness of curricula and students’ abilities and its components.

It can be stated that the quality of learning experiences strengthens the relationship between the effectiveness of the curriculum and students’ personal, interpersonal, and cognitive abilities. Therefore, university administrators are recommended to pay more attention to the relationship between curricula and students’ abilities since developing a range of abilities in students can help them cope with academic challenges and achieve scientific and professional growth.

Education is the foundation of sustainable human development and is considered the main tool to achieve development goals. Educational systems are regarded as the main pillar of transformation in societies and the major factor in improving human capital. In this context, teachers are the most important agents in the process of curriculum implementation.

Research Questions:

The main research question of this study was as follows: What are the indicators and components of teachers’ professional development?

The present research is a research synthesis, which collated specific factors pertinent to teachers’ professional development as reported in the literature. The reason for using the research synthesis as the study method was that the authors intended to integrate various research findings. In some cases, a research synthesis is referred to as a qualitative metaanalysis aimed at analyzing a relevant body of literature and integrating the results while resolving the potential contradictions in it. It also identifies key issues for future research (Hedges & Cooper, 2009) and creates generalizations by combining the results of experimental research (Khorasani, 2014). Content analysis was used for data synthesis. Furthermore, open, axial, and selective coding procedures were performed to examine the collected data. This study adopted Roberts’ (1983) six-stage model of research synthesis to analyze the findings. These stages included the followings: 1- identifying and clarifying the needs, 2- searching the related sources to retrieve studies, 3- selecting, refining, and organizing studies, 4- determining the perceptual framework and adapting it to the information obtained, 5- processing, combining, and interpreting the results, and

The results showed that the professional development of teachers required many changes at the individual, organizational, planning, and challenges to the professional development levels and that these four levels/dimensions are interconnected. To achieve the goal of improving human resources in education, teachers’ professional development in all these four dimensions requires the adoption of a trans-organizational and national perspective. In the individual dimension, the components of teachers’ professional development revolved around motivational axes, individual dimensions effective, teachers’ interactions, and the characteristics of teacher educators. In the organizational dimension, teachers’ professional development included four indicators, namely, supervision and evaluation of professional development programs, managerial approach and the components of human resources management, the support of professional development activities in the organization, and provision of a suitable career path in the organization providing the possibility of promotion and professional development of teachers. The planning dimension comprised attention to knowledge management in educational organizations, the use of self-directed and individual approaches (e.g., individual action research), and participatory approaches in teachers’ professional development (e.g., use of mentoring and coaching approaches). Finally, the challenges to the professional development dimension entailed defective need analysis, challenges to planning training courses, economic challenges, accessibility, the development of personal and social skills, and the use of new tools, including social networking platforms (e.g., Twitter) and online platforms) in professional development.

Improving teacher quality plays a pivotal role in improving education. Paying attention to teachers’ professional development, as a means to improving human resources in educational organizations, is one of the crucial strategies in human resources management in government organizations. The professional development includes formal and informal learning experiences that teachers acquire from the beginning of their careers to the time of retirement. Professional development of teachers is critical to improving educational systems. This is of great importance to, in particular, the Iranian education system, which suffers from numerous fundamental weaknesses in the area of human resources management. According to the above findings and discussion, it can be stated that teachers’ professional development, as a process, does not depend on only one of the above-mentioned four dimensions. It is hoped that the core dimensions, along with their associated components, presented in this study can provide the basis for improving the current models of professional development and developing new alternatives.

Different countries participate in various international assessments, including TIMSS, to better track their progress in science and mathematics education. During some periods of this study, Iran performed lower than the global average of the participating countries and some of its Asian peers. Mathematics education specialists have sought to investigate the reasons for this issue by holding numerous meetings and conducting various studies. This difference in the performance of Iranian students compared with their peers in other countries can be explained by multiple factors, including how classrooms are held in different countries, how teachers and their teaching methods are prepared, the changes made to textbooks and the educational system, etc. One of the most important factors that can account for the Iranian underperformance in mathematics is the structure and content of mathematics textbooks. This suggestion is confirmed by the results of various internal and external studies that have referred to the significant effect of mathematics textbooks on learning and students’ achievements. Therefore, considering the decisive role that mathematics textbooks play in creating content and process knowledge, as well as students’ performance in international studies, conducting studies with the aim of comparing textbooks of different countries seems to be necessary to identify the strengths and weaknesses of textbooks belonging to any given country. The results of such studies can be used to introduce changes and thus improve mathematics textbooks. Research Question: 1- What concepts are common between the Japanese and Iranian first-to–sixth-grade mathematics textbooks? 2- What concepts are specific to the Japanese or Iranian first-to-sixth-grade mathematics textbooks?

The present study adopted a qualitative approach using Bereday’s four-step method of comparative analysis to examine and compare the concepts presented in the primary school mathematics textbooks of Iran and Japan. Data collection tools included content analysis forms whose face and content validity had been confirmed by mathematics professors and experienced teachers.

The examination and comparison of the concepts present in the Japanese and Iranian primary school mathematics textbooks showed that primary school mathematics textbooks in both countries included a variety of content including numbers and operations on them, geometry, measurement, etc. in each grade. The concepts were revisited in the subsequent grades at a higher level and in a more complicated manner. Furthermore, the results indicated that there were some topics common between and specific to the Japanese and Iranian primary school mathematics textbooks. Although some concepts were common in primary school mathematics, those concepts were presented to students in different grades. In both countries, students at the primary level were introduced to concepts such as numbers and operations on them, pattern identification, fractions and operations on them, decimal numbers and operations on them, symmetry, measurement, geometry, ratio and proportion, statistics and approximation, and estimation. Regarding the concepts specific to the mathematics textbooks of one country, these concepts were not the educational goal of mathematics textbooks in the other country until the end of the sixth grade. Examples of concepts that were discussed more in the Japanese mathematics textbooks included counting, speed, metric system, and counting and operations with the abacus. On the other hand, some concepts, such as probability, divisibility rules, and negative integers, were only mentioned in Iranian mathematics textbooks. To clarify, While Iranian students become familiar with divisibility rules for numbers 2, 3, 5, and 9 and negative integers during the first-to-sixth grade in primary school, these concepts are not introduced to Japanese students before the end of the sixth grade. On the other hand, the introduction of prime numbers and (common) divisors were specific to Japanese primary school mathematics textbooks.

Examining the concepts that were common between and specific to Iranian and Japanese primary school mathematics textbooks and comparing the performance of Iranian and Japanese fourth-grade students in solving mathematics problems related to those concepts, as published by TIMSS, revealed that Iranian students performed poorly compared to their Japanese peers in common topics. Various factors can account for the poor performance of Iranian students in problems related to common topics, but regarding primary school mathematics textbooks, it can be said that the content of these textbooks needs to be reviewed and modified, and the examples presented in the text of these textbooks can be further improved. Mathematics textbook authors are encouraged to take the necessary steps to improve the content of mathematics textbooks by examining and comparing the presentation of common concepts and the problems associated with them in Japanese and Iranian primary school mathematics textbooks. This, in turn, can help students gain a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts and build on their understanding to foster constructive changes. As regards the concepts specific to Japanese mathematics textbooks, it is not wise to act precipitously and rush to include these concepts in Iranian textbooks. Rather, this issue requires careful inspection of the results related to the performance of Iranian students in mathematics in different periods, as reported by the TIMSS and other international platforms. It is also necessary to conduct more extensive research on the potential effects of introducing non-common concepts presented in Japanese mathematics textbooks into Iranian mathematics textbooks

Understanding paradigmatic tendencies and factors that are effective in the formation of such tendencies in faculty members of curriculum studies can help faculty members address the contradictions in their paradigmatic tendencies. Furthermore, it facilitates the development of paradigm-oriented teaching and research programs for faculty members, which, in turn, foster the development of curriculum studies based on a scientific and systematic process.

 Research Questions:

 Quantitative section question What are the paradigmatic tendencies of faculty members in the field of curriculum studies? Qualitative section question What factors do faculty members of curriculum studies consider being effective in forming their paradigmatic tendencies?

The present study aimed at identifying the effective factors on the paradigmatic tendencies of faculty members in the field of curriculum studies. This study adopted an explanatory sequential mixed-method design and a follow-up explanations model in two quantitative and qualitative steps. The statistical population included all Iranian state university faculty members in the field of curriculum studies. In the quantitative part, 85 faculty members were selected using simple random sampling, and a researcher-made scale was used to collect data. During this phase of the study, faculty members’ ideas germane to different aspects of ontology, anthropology, epistemology, methodology, and pedagogy were extracted. In addition, their ideas regarding the curriculum model, including goal, content, and teaching strategies, and five paradigms, including critical, interpretative, post-modern, positivist, and Islamic paradigms, were extracted. After examining the reliability and validity of the tools, data were collected. In the qualitative phase, a case study method was used, and data were collected until data saturation was reached. In line with the findings of the quantitative section, a semi-structured interview was developed and conducted with 10 of the participant faculty members.

Quantitative data analysis using Friedman’s test and repeated analysis of variances showed that curriculum studies faculty members lacked paradigmatic coherence. The results of content analysis (qualitative phase) showed that scientific and research factors, epistemological factors, and academic atmosphere were the three factors causing paradigmatic incoherence in faculty members.

The most important contribution of this study was to highlight the point that the faculty members of curriculum studies lacked coherence in their paradigmatic tendencies. This lack of coherence can adversely affect their education, research, and writing tendencies. The study also showed that academic conditions and requirements (academic atmosphere), epistemological and personality factors, and faculty members’ insufficient theoretical understanding of major paradigms in humanities and philosophy of science led to the formation of contradictory patterns in the paradigmatic tendencies of faculty members of curriculum studies. In this regard, it can be stated that these contradictions can be greatly reduced by holding training workshops for faculty members of humanities and educational sciences and developing paradigm-oriented educational and research programs for faculty members. These plans, once materialized, can orient the field of curriculum studies toward a more scientific and systematic basis

Digital competence is defined as a set of knowledge, skills, strategies, and awareness required when using information and communication technologies. Digitally competent teachers can effectively model and use instructional experiences designed, implemented, and evaluated to engage students and enhance their learning. The aim of the current research was to investigate and identify the lived experiences and perceptions of primary school teachers about the digital skills they needed in the post-Covid-19 era.

This applied qualitative research adopted a descriptive phenomenological approach. For this purpose, 27 primary school teachers in Sari, Mazandaran Province, Iran, were selected through criteria-based purposive sampling with maximum variation, and semistructured in-depth interviews were used to investigate their perception and lived experience of digital competencies. To validate the findings, peer review and two external experts’ opinions were used to examine the data. Data were analyzed based on Colaizzi’s (1969) seven-step analysis method.

The findings in the interview section with primary school teachers showed that teachers’ perceptions of digital competencies in the post-Covid-19 era included 12 themes as follows: digital education strategies, teaching and learning goals in the digital space, digital education infrastructure, cooperation with stakeholders, expansion of technological communication, spiritual influence of teachers in the digital environment, digitization of behavior, orientation towards digitization, digital management system, information skills, content creation skills, skills related to the use of digital tools. The aforementioned 12 themes encompassed 36 sub-themes.

Based on the findings, it can be stated that to advance and improve primary school teachers’ digital competencies, policy-makers and educational planners need to modify the upstream documents in line with the identified components of teachers’ digital competencies. Furthermore, digitally competent teachers and educational technology experts should be invited to equip teachers with digital skills and competencies

One of the key factors in the development of each country is the ongoing training of human resources. In this regard, the education system and teachers, as the major pillars of education, have a huge responsibility. Adaptation of curriculum to the needs of learners and society, the time allocated to the training and implementation of the curriculum, and the space, facilities, and equipment necessary for the implementation of the curriculum, or, to put it more clearly, an understanding of the inputs necessary for the implementation of the curriculum are all vital to the success of the curriculum. It is not possible to ignore the process of curriculum implementation and assume that the curriculum will be implemented in practice as intended. For various reasons, the curriculum may undergo several changes during the process of its implementation. Therefore, according to the objectives set forth in the elementary education curriculum, the question that arises is whether the proposed curriculum is being implemented based on the intended curriculum at the university level.

Research Questions: 

The general question of the study was as follows: What are the teachers’ lived experiences of teaching methods, familiarity with the language of art, familiarity with technology, and familiarity with the analysis of the learning behavior of learners in the implemented curriculum of elementary education at Farhangian University? The main questions of the study were as follows: 1) What are the instructors’ lived experiences in relation to the opportunities created to familiarize students with teaching methods in elementary school? 2) What are the instructors’ lived experiences in relation to the opportunities created using the language of art to familiarize students with the development of cognitive abilities such as imagination, creativity, and thinking in learners? 3) What are the instructors’ lived experiences in relation to the opportunities created to familiarize students with the use of information and communication technology to create educational opportunities and develop their professional abilities? 4) What are the instructors’ lived experiences in relation to the opportunities created to familiarize students with keeping records, collecting evidence, providing feedback, and analyzing their educational behavior? Research Method This applied qualitative research adopted Husserl’s descriptive phenomenological method. In this method, an attempt is made to understand and discover the meanings created by and attributed to different phenomena, and its findings are used for optimal decision-making and action (Gul, 2011). Accordingly, in the present research, the three stages of Husserl’s phenomenology were implemented. These steps included the following: 1- a phenomenological study of the curriculum implemented for undergraduate students of elementary education at Farhangian University, 2- An analysis of interviewees’ ideas about the experienced phenomena, i.e., the implementation of the curriculum, 3- A description of the qualitative data collected from the interviews. The research participants were teachers of educational sciences teaching in Arak Farhangian University. In some cases, each participant teacher was interviewed several times. The inclusion criterion for selecting participants was their teaching experience in the field of elementary education at Farhangian University. Initially, a semi-structured interview was conducted with the selected participants, and their lived experiences concerning the above-mentioned topics were collected. The interview questions were designed based on the objectives of the curriculum used in the undergraduate elementary education program at Farhangian University. In the curriculum approved and communicated for the elementary education program at Farhangian University (AsadiGarmaroodi & Sharifzadeh, 2013), 10 goals are assumed for teacher training in the field of elementary education. Important keywords taken from these 10 macro goals were used to design the interview .

The findings regarding the instructors’ lived experiences in relation to the opportunities created to familiarize students with teaching methods in the subject areas of elementary school were classified into four main categories as follows: 1- knowledge of teaching strategies, 2- the experience of thematic teaching, 3- the experience of implementing the exploratory teaching method, and 4- the experience of implementing the active teaching method. The findings pertinent to the instructors’ lived experiences in relation to the opportunities created by the language of art to familiarize students with the development of cognitive abilities such as imagination, creativity, and thinking in learners can be divided into the six following main categories: 1- familiarity with the language of art, 2- inclusion of the language of art in any of the materials to strengthen students’ abilities, 3- teaching and training, 4- classroom training, 5- controlling students’ emotions, and 6- professional development. As regardsthe instructors’ lived experiences in relation to the opportunities created to familiarize students with the use of information and communication technology to create or enrich educational opportunities and develop their professional abilities, the findings were placed into the following four main categories: 1- enrichment of education, 2- professional development, 3- education and teaching, and 4- the creation of learning opportunities. Findings related to the instructors’ lived experiences in relation to the opportunities created to familiarize students with keeping records, collecting evidence, providing feedback, and analyzing students’ educational behavior were organized into four main categories as follows: 1- optimum use of opportunities and situations associated with students’ educational behavior, 2- the ability to analyze educational behavior, 3- the ability to collect students’ academic evidence, 4- the ability to provide appropriate feedback on students’ academic status.

Farhangian University instructors’ lived experiences of teaching methods in both theoretical and practical dimensions were found to be consistent with the intended goals of the curriculum. This was reflected in the designing and implementation of a variety of activities and experiences in their teaching. However, their unsuccessful lived experiences concerned the many instances in which although they had the cognitive and theoretical knowledge germane to the best teaching methods they could not utilize those teaching methods in their teaching due to the lack of necessary facilities and equipment, which, in turn, suggested that their teaching was not effective. This is despite the fact that the practical implementation of teaching methods is considered as one of the most important aspects of the curriculum of Farhangian University. To sum up, the use of the language of art, information and communication technologies, and analytical skills to enhance students’ abilities can create favorable learning opportunities in the curriculum of the undergraduate elementary education program at Farhangian University

In this research, the theoretical foundations reflected in the Miller’s (2019) theory of curriculum were used to analyze the synergistic approach in his curriculum elements. In accomplishing this goal, systems theory was employed to explain the nature of the components of his proposed curriculum in the education system. A review of the literature shows that no study has been done yet to explain the synergistic approach in Miller’s (2019) curriculum elements. Considering the theoretical and practical importance of synergy, which has been highlighted in various studies, and that the formulation and implementation of an efficient curriculum is one of the main concerns in any education system, the main goal of the current research was to explain the synergistic approach in Miller’s curriculum elements using the systems theory.

Research questions:

 The study questions were as follows: 1. How do the research findings explain the objectives of a synergistic curriculum ? 2. What are the characteristics of students included in a synergistic curriculum ? 3. What are the roles and duties of teachers in a synergistic curriculum ? 4. What are the teaching-learning approaches in a synergistic curriculum ? 5. What are the characteristics of the educational environment in a synergistic curriculum ? 6. What are the evaluation approaches in a synergistic curriculum?

The current research was conducted to explain the synergistic approach reflected in Miller’s (2019) curriculum elements using a systematic review method. Purposive sampling was used to collect the data, and comparative content analysis was used to analyze the collected data. In this study, the relevant research on the topic of synergy in curriculum studies was identified and carefully examined. In the next phase of the study, an attempt was made to explicate the nature of a synergistic approach reflected in the six elements of Miller’s curriculum. In so doing, the seven steps suggested by Sandelowski and Barros (2007) were used to analyze the data.

The findings showed that the nature of synergistic curriculum planning, that is, participation in the production, implementation, and evaluation of a curriculum, involves the participation of a larger group of educational stakeholders. According to the findings, promoting cooperation among individuals, tapping into each individual’s skills, and using expert opinions lead to a more satisfactory and elaborate outcome, which crystallizes the true meaning of collaboration. Students are considered as a dynamic and active element in a synergistic program in all fields. Hathib (2016) emphasized that students in a synergistic curriculum had “the spirit of teamwork, mutual understanding, free-spirited attitude, mutual respect, and better understanding”. He also asserted that a synergistic curriculum could foster “group discussion, group assignments, and cooperative learning”. In a synergistic curriculum, the role of a teacher is that of a guide and a facilitator who combines teaching with technology and makes the class an attractive place for students. Moreover, such a teacher accompanies students in their quest for learning during the academic year as a driving force and source of enthusiasm. In a synergistic curriculum, special emphasis is placed on creating dialogue-oriented and collaborative environments, in which interactive learning, technological methods, and flipped learning take center stage. The learning environment in a synergistic curriculum is fertile for the expansion of cooperation and mutual respect. Participation and cooperation, as pointed out above, are of great importance. A synergistic curriculum is intended to create an environment that benefits from the use of educational technology to facilitate the process of knowledge acquisition. In such an environment, communication technologies are used to ease dialogue between learners and enhance their learning. Due to the nature of a synergistic curriculum, it is expected that no single specific method be considered for the evaluation of students; rather, teachers are encouraged to avail themselves of various complementary evaluation methods implemented formatively and qualitatively. In addition, the evaluation in a synergistic curriculum follows an integrated approach and takes into account all students’ activities.

In a synergistic curriculum, the emphasis put on the complementary role of the school and how to live peacefully is not limited to the roles of teachers, students, and the environment, yet it also highlights the importance of interacting and cooperating with all other stakeholders involved in the education system. Curriculum planning specialists strive to design programs that are based on systemic and synergistic theory. An indispensable element of such curriculums is paying attention to the integration of technology with teaching through the employment of teachers who are aware of the latest technological developments relevant to teaching and learning. A cooperative atmosphere in the classroom contributes to the dynamics of group work and boosts learners’ social activity, which, in turn, provides the ground for both teachers and learners to realize the spirit of synergy.

Plurality, diversity, and difference are indisputable realities of the world in which we live. Thus, any attempt to turn these qualities into one, unified, mono-logic entity is out of the question. In order to live in such a diversified world, we need an education that values diversity and plurality and rejects the exclusion and marginalization of others. Such education is ethically necessary as it not only makes schooling more just through the inclusion of all differences but also pursues to empower all students regardless of their differences and cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds. Traditionally, differences and diversity in schooling are regarded as a barrier to learning and a challenge for teachers and educators. That is why educational stakeholders, including teachers, may try to turn these differences into similarities and conformity. If difference and diversity are seen in a positive way by teachers, they will use them as a source of learning for both themselves and the students they are interacting with. Every classroom is a small field that represents different voices and perspectives that students bring with them to it. Ethically speaking, a pedagogy that embraces and values this plurality maintains educational justice and equity and can benefit both students and teachers. Thus, this paper intended to look into the theoretical foundations of Iranian formal education to see whether they afford opportunities and possibilities for a pedagogy that embraces diversity and difference. This requires, first of all, a conceptualization of inclusive pedagogy that is responsive to Iran’s cultural and social climate. This conceptualization, however, requires a critical evaluation as it is based on potential opportunities for inclusive pedagogy and not the true practice of education in reality. In this regard, the preconditions for the realization of a hypothetical inclusive pedagogy that can be inferred through a careful examination of theoretical and textual sources must be taken into consideration to avoid naive judgments or simplistic conclusions.

Research Questions:

 This study sought to answer the following two questions: 1- What are the potential opportunities for inclusive pedagogy in the theoretical foundations of Iranian formal and public education? 2- What are the prerequisites for the implementation and realization of those theoretical grounds for inclusive pedagogy in Iran?

To address the first study question (i.e., identifying the theoretical grounds for an inclusive pedagogy), inductive qualitative content analysis was applied to inspect the data presented in a book entitled, “The Theoretical Foundations of Constitutive Transformation of Iranian Formal and Public Education (2011)”. Afterward, the conceptualized and theoretical grounds that were found to foster opportunities for an inclusive pedagogy were examined critically to identify some of the prerequisites needed for an inclusive pedagogy.

A close reading and inductive analysis of “The Theoretical Foundations of Constitutive Transformation of Iranian Formal and Public Education” (2011) led to the identification of six major concepts that were considered to form the potential constituents of an inclusive pedagogy. These six major themes were as follows: 1. educational equity, 2. diversity and distinction, 3. openness to otherness, 4. protection and improvement of freedom, 5. adjustable and open schooling, and 6. civil collaboration and intervention. It is worth noting that these potential theoretical opportunities are organically intertwined since they complement and support each other. It is also noteworthy that this conceptualization was done purposively and intentionally, i.e., the text was read in a way to serve the intention of the study. Thus, the realization of this theoretical capacity in the real world of education, provided that there is any will to do so, is dependent on the fulfillment of several prerequisites. Discussion and

Although a hypothetical basis for inclusive pedagogy could be drawn out of the theoretical foundations of Iranian formal education, there is no chance for such pedagogy to be materialized in the real world unless that hypothetical basis is turned into an authentic discourse. An inclusive pedagogy can claim its place as a discourse provided that the gap between the realm of theory and practice is bridged. This happens when the following five conditions are met. First, there exists an ethical commitment to the dynamicity of the concept of diversity in our educational thinking and planning. Second, structural contradictions in education are removed, i.e. removing the incongruity between the values that are recommended in theory and those promoted in practice. Third, students’ voices in both theory and practice of education are heard. Fourth, a pluralistic, multicultural teacher education approach is developed and practiced to train teachers to value and support difference and diversity. Fifth, democratic intervention by the public in educational decision-making is facilitated and supported. Accordingly, an inclusive pedagogy is a pedagogy that seeks equity in education through the inclusion of all students despite their individual, cultural, racial, and ethnic differences and is premised on the notion that difference and diversity are an opportunity rather than a threat. A true transformation of Iranian formal education, then, is achieved through recognition of diversity and difference and rejection of conformity in teaching and schooling.

Curriculum is inherently ideological in nature; thus, it can be proposed that any curriculum perspective rests on a certain philosophy. Values with which an ideology is defined distinguish it from other ideologies and points of view, resulting in ideological confrontations. Accordingly, one can propound a curriculum, along with its elements, that is founded on monotheistic innatism rooted in the educational philosophy of Islam. Need analysis, which is the first element considered within the process of curriculum planning, is carried out based on a simultaneous analysis of idealism and realism to strike a dynamic balance between the two. Although needs reflect contextual realities, they cannot be limited to those realities. Thus, it is important to bear in mind that curriculum needs need not be exclusively grounded in reality; rather, it is necessary to ensure that curriculum needs closely and meaningfully correspond to basic Islamic values. In this view, curriculum objectives, as another element of the curriculum, are in a clear vertical relationship with closeness and servitude to God. Objectives, while rooted in social needs and realities, maintain a divine orientation. Other components of the curriculum, including content, method, context, education, and family, also follow the same divine orientation.