فصلنامه مطالعات آسیای مرکزی و قفقاز
پیاپی 120 (زمستان 1401)

Due to the increase of China’s power in the International arena and the non-compliance of China’s behavior with realistic theories on one hand and the existence of long-standing strategic traditions and China’s cultural continuity during the past millennials on the other, studying the cultural elements is of central importance for understanding China’s foreign policy. Due to the importance of cultural elements in China’s foreign policy, the main question of the present research states: how China’s strategic culture has affected China’s foreign policy regarding South China Sea conflict. China’s strategic culture is a dual culture in which there is a tendency for using military and non-military means simultaneously; this means that China’s strategic culture is not absolutely pacific or belligerent. Before the dawn of Xi Jinping’s leadership, the need for a low tension environment for advancing economic development led the Chinese leaders to resort to Confucian slogans such as peaceful development; after the start of Xi Jinping’s leadership, military and economic power gained same importance in China’s foreign policy. This new approach has been evident regarding this conflict due to the increase of China’s military mobility in South China Sea.

Strategic culture is one of the new concepts in international relations literature which has been used by Jack Snyder for the first time. Scientific studies regarding the effects of strategic culture on Islamic Republic of Iran’s behavior have been mainly conducted during the two recent decades and specifically after the rise of crises regarding the nuclear power case and ballistic missile program. The main question of the present paper states: how the strategic culture has been shaping the Islamic Republic of Iran’s foreign policy regarding Afghanistan from 1358 to 1398? Our provisional answer to this question is that strategic culture, through shaping strategic and consistent behaviors, has led the Islamic Republic of Iran to adopt a consistent and ultra-discourse policy towards Afghanistan from 1358 to 1398, unlike the political and discourse-related developments within the country. The present paper is descriptive-analytical and the researcher gathered the necessary data through library resources, social media and interview with Iran’s foreign policy authorities who have been responsible for Afghanistan issues.

Turkey’s energy consumption has been increasing during recent years due to the country’s economic growth. This issue, accompanied by inadequate fossil fuel (oil and gas) resources, is one of the most effective elements in turkey’s foreign relations with the most important energy providing countries which provide energy for turkey. In addition to studying Turkey’s energy strategy regarding Azerbaijan and Iraq, this research tries to assess the success or failure of this strategy. The main question of this paper states: turkey’s energy strategy towards Azerbaijan and Iraq has been shaped based on which elements and how is it evaluated? The hypothesis of the research is that turkey’s energy strategy is based on diversifying energy (oil and gas) providing countries and reducing reliance on limited number of countries in providing energy and on the basis of this approach, turkey has been paying more attention to Caspian Sea and Middle East regions, especially the Republic of Azerbaijan and Iraq. The findings of this research, which has been conducted on the basis of descriptive-analytical method, indicates the expansion of Turkey’s relations with Azerbaijan and Iraq based on the volume of oil and gas exchanges and diversity of energy lines with the centrality of Turkey; this shows that turkey’s energy strategy has been successful.

In the era of globalization, which has been accompanied by evident changes in international system, the importance of non-governmental players has been increasing and public diplomacy has turned into one of the most important types of diplomacy which has been the implications of the increasing importance of the role of public opinion in international affairs. Japan has been one of the countries which have been using public diplomacy as a means for creating a positive image for the country. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the independence of Central Asian countries, the expansion of Japan’s relations with mentioned countries has become more important due to the region’s strategic position and rich oil, gas, rare metal, and uranium resources. Through soft power and presenting a positive image of the country, Japan has become a successful model for the development of Central Asian countries and has penetrated into the heart and mind of the Central Asian people and politicians. In the present research, we have analyzed the elements of Japan’s public diplomacy in Central Asian countries. The main question of the research states: why Japan’s approach in Central Asia has been based on enhancing public diplomacy and maximum exploitation of soft power geocultural competition with China and Russia? Answering this question, we can say that while China has been focused on economic dimension and Russia has been focused on security dimension, Japan has tried to enter this strategic region by relying on its soft power attractions and has been seeking to become a cultural power. Japan influenced the public opinion of these countries through three key components of cultural diplomacy, scientific and educational diplomacy, and providing developmental helps. The research method of this research is descriptive-analytical.

Conflicts and many of the states’ actions can be analyzed through the theory of ontological security. Sometimes, states take measures which endanger their physical and realistic security. States confront disdain through honor seeking actions. The main question of the present research state: how ontological security triggered Russia to start the war with Ukraine? To answer this question, the hypothesis of the research states that neglecting Russia’s existential security borders from the West – within the form of NATO – led Russia to extensive military conflict with Ukraine in order to remind the West of its existential security borders. In the present research, data gathering method has been based on internet and library documents and the research has been conducted on the basis of descriptive-analytical approach. The findings of the research shows that Russia-Ukraine war has risen within the theoretical framework of ontological security which is based on Eurasianism and Russian nationalism and geopolitics that shape Russia’s biographic narrative. Russia’s attack on Ukraine is considered to be an honorable action to refrain from shame and disdain.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union and independence, the five countries of Central Asia have been able to endure their independent sovereignty without crisis, conflict, war, and instability. The main question of the present research states: which factor leads us to political and sovereign stability? And what has been the extent of the Soviet Union’s role and influence in this stability? The hypothesis and answer to this question is based on this foundation that the continuity of the former party leaders’ governance, traditions of political patriarchy, and the effective heritage of the Soviet Union in establishing political, civil, and social institutions in these countries have been the most important factors of this stability. Each of the leaders of these republics has tried to establish the foundations of legitimacy and acceptability on the basis of traditions and continue their authoritarian ruling on this basis. The heritage of Lenin and Stalin’s nation-building and Soviet Union’s developmental policies, as well as forty years of governing experience by indigenous people in these countries and its combination with traditional authoritarianism has led to political and social stability in Central Asian Republics after independence. The main purpose of the present research is to understand the political complexities in Central Asia and find the historical roots of contemporary trends and the effect of nation-building process in these countries and a delicate comparison with their neighbor, Afghanistan, which is faced with instability due to the absence of nation-building and the non-effective heritage of Britain. In this research, in addition to benefitting from personal and field experiences, library resources has been used on the basis of content analysis of historical events and sociological perspective.