مجله رهپویه هنر
سال پنجم شماره 4 (پیاپی 17، زمستان 1401)

Early Christianity following Judaism culture, did not show passion for depiction as it was banned for all. There for no relic nor art form has been exhibited. But soon after the spread of Christianity in the Western world ,do to the belief of the resurrection of the body after death the Christians had to preserve the bodies of the believers. But as Christianity was prohibited in the Roman Empire the early followers buried the deceased in tunnels underground known as the Catacombs. There for about 200 AD, we find in the Catacombs of Rome early Christian religious paintings in Greco-Roman style. As the early Christians did not have any example of art other then the Greco-Roman style they followed their forefathers. These paintings resemble the art of the Romans in style with a Christian interpretation. But soon after the stabilization of Christianity we witness the appearance of an abstract resplendent Art. The concept of Beauty (proportion of elements-harmony and balance)that was accepted by the Greeks and Romans was also followed and accepted by Christians thoughts. As we read in the holy bible Genesis 1:26 “Then God said let us make man in our image after our likeness and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over the livestock and over all the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth” on the other hand the Greek appreciation of nature was also accepted by the Christian for they considered It to be Gods beautiful creation. Thus it was expected that Christian depiction was to follow Greco-Roman Art as seen in the Catacombs with an alteration to religious Christian concepts. But that did not happen. On the other hand Mani(Persian prophet of the third century )was the first Christian leader that not only painted his holy books but also considered painting a holy act which was to be followed by his disciples. As the material world was forbidden in Mani’s dualistic beliefs his paintings were executed in a style which represented an nonmaterial domane there for we witness paintings which lack of perspective, shading with the usage of gold. The artistic culture which flourished in the Middle Ages is a reminiscent of Manichaeism Art. Which means the depiction of a nonmaterial world. There for we witness not only Mani’s style of painting but also Mani’s dualism Theology in medieval paintings. Mani, painter, calligrapher and an Iranian Prophet of the second century; was the founder of a Dualist Christianity tradition inspired by ancient Persian beliefs. The most important theological question of their sect was “Why does bad and evil exist and whence did it come from?” Dualism was there answer to that question. Meaning the existence of two separate Principles; One the Good and the other the Evil. In this belief the good Principal could not in any way be responsible for the bad in the world so they considered an evil Principle for creating the evil material world in some way fragments of light were captured and traped. The realm of God is the realm of light and the realm of evil is darkness. The benevolent light is cognitive but Darkness is ignorant and mischievous; Due to this legacy everything material is evil and thus have to be avoided. A long list of contrasts are to emerge, such as white being holy and black being evil even directions such as up, down and right, left were separated in this meaning. Mani used depiction as a means of propaganda for his belief thence depiction and inscription were considered holy and were of great value . He is the only prophet who not only executed his thoughts in writing and painting but also obligated his disciples to copy and translate the holy books and thus established an artistic culture. His legacy not only influenced many cultures and religions but also portrayed that pictures are designed to fulfill a didactic foundation. Manichaeism spread all over the known world and gathered a large flock. One of his most important followers was Saint Augustine. He is known to be one of the most influential Fathers in the Christian world. Although he wrote many books condemning the Manichaeism he never really let go of the dualistic though which is the cornerstone of Manichaeism. Scholars such as Van Oort and Be duhen believe that St. Augustine was not only highly inspired by Mani but also transferred a great deal of Manichaeism into the Christine world. He and other scholars believe that saint Augustine was the connecting link of Manichaeism and Christianity. Saint Augustine was influence deeply by three doctrine, Christianity, Manichaeism and Neoplatonic. His writtings are a witness to this statement. Thus not only we witness Mani’s style of painting but also can trace his thoughts of Dualist in all the paintings of the Middle Ages.

The topic of initiation or transition rites has been extensively addressed in the traditions of various cultures and societies, and these rituals have been linked to human life from conception to death. All of these initiation rituals have the same goal, which is to endure life’s stages with the adoring support of a community in order to accomplish a certain objective. In Seven Labours with a distinct and special function, the hero picks a perilous path in order to achieve a certain purpose, since the challenging tests along the way require individuals with exceptional abilities and special attributes in order to complete them, and bring about communal satisfaction and bliss. The Shahnama is one of the most significant literary works of Iranian culture, which also contains the ritual outlined above. It has always served as inspiration for artists, who have attempted to depict various passages from this literary masterpiece. One of the most significant themes, particularly in the seven labours of the Shahnama, both in the original text and in the derivative depictions from it, is the relationship between metamorphosis and initiation rituals. The primary focus of this study is to reveal the similar transformations of two main characters (Rostam and Esfandiyar) in the fourth labor of theirs seven-labor of Shahnama, as well as the conflict between good and evil (both in verbal and visual texts), using a trans-semiotic approach and based on an analysis of Shahnama’s metamorphosis’s intertextual field. The primary focus of this study is to reveal the similar transformations of two main characters (Rostam and Esfandiyar) in the fourth labor of theirs seven-labor of Shahnama, as well as the conflict between good and evil (both in verbal and visual texts), using a trans-semiotic approach and based on an analysis of Shahnama’s metamorphosis’s intertextual field. In addition to investigating the phenomena of metamorphosis and why it is utilized in analogous labours from seven of Rostam and Esfandiar’s labours, the study is also concerned with examining how the phenomenon of metamorphosis has been represented in the Shahnama’s visual versions, based on the signs used in the illustrations. This article begins by approaching the verbal metamorphosis from a trans-semiotic perspective. Subsequently, morphological analysis is carried out to provide an explanation for the observed transformations. This methodology is based on descriptive-analytic, synthetic, and comparative methodologies, as well as data gathered from libraries. In accordance with the study’s results, the metamorphosis in the fourth labour of Seven Labours, a similar phase, serves as a test and occurs during the protagonists’ most difficult transitional phases. In this struggle, one of the most major transformations of the evil force toward the achievement of a particular goal takes place, leading to the hero’s victory and his passage to the highest level of initiation ceremonies. The research’s further findings indicate that this transition also applies to the visuals derived from it. The visuals, however, are unable to independently reflect the verbal pre-text (metamorphosis and its relationship to initiation ceremonies).

The painting of persian consist of the accompaniment of a Peony (Red Rose) and a bird that is often unfamiliar on the stem, or a combination of two celestial Iris and white lilies, a single tulip or Narcissus plant. The pictorial foundations of flowers and birds can be considered as symbolic elements of pre-Islamic illustrations. In the holy trinity of the Iranians, “Mitra, Ahuramazda and Anahita” can be seen in the form of transformed Mitra with the Lotus (as we see on the stonecarving of Taq Bostan arch), Ahuramazda with a winged disk depicting the role of simorgh or Sien-morq and Anahita is the goddess of water purity. With the role of Iris, which are the flowers of Amshasbandan Amertat and Hwrtat. In the Islamic period, due to the limitations of iconography and illustration, this abstraction in the form of two Islamic or Islimi roles, Arabesque (Iris) and Lotus or Khatai found their way as the pre-Islamic religious image pattern prevailed in places such as mosques and altars. The purpose is to study how the pictorial traditions of ancient Iran continued until the abstraction of roses? So what is the transformation of the pictorial traditions of the ancient gods of Iran in the red rose of the Islamic period and what is the identity of the birds in this art? The research method is descriptive-analytical and data collection is library method. The role of the Lotus and the rooster, gave way to the prophet Muhammad and his ascension by emphasizing the manichaean Lotus and rose flowers (peony) in the Islamic period. Examination of pre-islamic artistic and cultural influences reveals an important example of the prophet’s meeting with the white rooster, the rooster sitting on An Throne (orang), which was of special importance to the manichaeans, using symmetrical patterns common in the pre-islamic period and in the works of the Timurid period. Safavid and Qajar artists with more emphasis on the principle of abstraction tried to present these patterns in the style and context of their time. In the Safavid period, although there was a tendency for traditional roles, but the emergence of western painting caused a change in the design and role of flowers and birds. The artists who tried to achieve the patterns of naturalism and realism that they learned from the european painters did not forget their themes and in the period of Afshar and Zand, using the creative mind and influenced by mystical literature, turned the rose into a symbol of prophet Muhammad. The composition of flowers and bird should be more regular and create new compositions using various flowers, but in the early Qajar period, this combination increased on practical works, especially lacquer, and its most used in this period was the cover of the Quranic book and religious prayers, which show it was the artists’ awareness of the subject; If the use of sleeping birds as a representative of the artist’s condition and the figures of recitation and recourse in the name of the pure Imams confirms this fact.

Today, artistic activities are one of the goals of governments to achieve economic growth in the field of art, especially in developing and advanced countries. Iranian art can also make a significant contribution to the growth of the country’s economy. so that with economic growth; Jobs will be created. Therefore, the art and cultural goods industry can be of special importance in the country’s economy. Many of the goals that governments seek to achieve are increasing production, reducing the unemployment rate in society, stabilizing prices, reducing the inflation rate, etc., and also the art and cultural goods industry can be particularly important in the country’s economy. One of the bases that is effective in the field of growth and job creation in the country’s economy is the economy of art. In recent years, galleries and auctions have become more active in the field of buying and selling works of art, especially paintings, and Iranian artists have achieved great success in domestic and foreign markets regardless of the difficulties that exist. In today’s societies, the auction of works of art has become a very important thing in terms of cultural activities and introduces the works of artists to art lovers. In addition to the impact they have on the economy, auctions expand the scope of the artist’s art and knowledge and introduce people to art. Due to their uniqueness and because they are different and distinct from each other externally and internally, paintings are placed in the group of heterogeneous goods. In the supply and sale of paintings, there are many factors, such as having an aesthetic understanding of style, technique, content, dimensions, creation time, and physical and visual characteristics. In addition to being different in terms of features and appearance, these works are very different from each other in terms of theme and in terms of form, concept, color and characteristics of the painter himself. Works of art also have significant differences from other goods in terms of sales and presentation, even in terms of the type of consumer. One of the most important centers where art works are bought and sold, especially paintings, is Tehran Auction, which has been operating for about a decade. But the important point is the impact of social conditions and economic crises on the sale of paintings, which must be analyzed. With the formation of Tehran Auction in 2012, the buying and selling of art works especially paintings by contemporary Iranian artists took on a new form and these works were valued and priced with special features at different prices. Tehran Auction, as one of the most important centers that introduces classical, modern, and contemporary art works by contemporary Iranian artists to the audiences and buys and sells visual works of Iranian artists, especially paintings, has created a new perspective on valuing works of art. On the other hand, economic crises such as inflation and the rising dollar in recent years have affected the valuation, pricing, and sale of artworks. This article aims to investigate the factors affecting the sale of paintings by contemporary Iranian artists and the effect of free dollar price fluctuations on the sale of paintings in the Tehran auction. However, in this study we seek to answer the following questions: 1. What are the factors affecting the sale of works by contemporary Iranian painters? 2. How do economic conditions and crises affect the sale of contemporary Iranian paintings? In this descriptive-analytical research, data libraries are collected. The statistical population includes all artists who participated in the Tehran auction from 2016 to 2020. The sample size consists of five contemporary artists including Bahman Mohasses, Sohrab Sepehri, Muhammad Ahsaei, Aydin Aghdashloo, and Farhad Moshiri whose works (37 works in total) were sold during the mentioned period. Two factors were considered in selecting the sample size: the highest amount of sales of works in the Tehran auction and the popularity of the mentioned artists in international auctions. The results showed that the physical characteristics of the paintings have a direct effect on its evaluation and sale such as technique, dimensions, material, creation time, whether the artist is alive or not. In addition, the dollar rate and inflation have also affected the sales and pricing of works. However, the total works selling price at the Tehran auction increased in terms of Tomans (Iranian currency), but considering the inflation rate, the value of the Rial and the free dollar price at the time of each auction, the sales of each period decreased with increasing inflation and the dollar rate.

Many scientific books in various fields of knowledge prepared and produced by Muslim artists have been decorated with images of humans, animals and plants. Although human iconography in the art of Iran (Islamic period) was affected by the religious view of the Islamic society regarding the representation of the human body and living things, there were ups and downs, but it seems that the illustrators of scientific books had more freedom of action. One of these scientific books, which is considered one of the most famous educational books on ancient astronomy, is Suwar Al-Kawākib (about 355AH) written by Abdul Rahman Sufi Razi. This book is an illustrated map of the sky, and in addition to comprehensive information and detailed tables of celestial objects, it has pictures for understanding and memorizing constellations. The iconography of living beings (humans and animals) can be seen without any restrictions, even in the oldest versions of Suwar Al-Kawākib (belonging to the early fifth century of Hijri). It seems that the tradition of illustration of Suwar Al-Kawākib, which started from the first editions and at the same time as the book was written, has continued in the later editions, and the illustrators, in addition to preserving the general state of the illustrations, have also taken advantage of the artistic features of their era. To the extent that in the versions of the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries of Hijri, the effects of the artistic patterns of the era can be clearly recognized on the paintings of Suwar Al-Kawākib. Therefore, the pictures of Suwar Al-Kawākib can be studied as a representative of a type of science painting in different periods.In Suwar Al-Kawākib, the fourteen constellations Cepheus, Bootes, Hercules, Cassiopeia, Perseus, Auriga, Ophiuchus, Andromeda, Gemini, Virgo, Sagittarius, Aquarius, Orion and Centaurus are associated with “man”. The present

If we define graphics as a problem-solving process on a two-dimensional level, visual communication is a visual effort to communicate and convey a message to the audience. An audience that, despite the daily routine and repetition, the busyness of urban life and many other factors such as various audio and visual media such as social networks such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and YouTube, passes by with a fleeting and unimportant look and towards the surroundings is indifferent. In fact, this relationship is established when the graphic design product succeeds in attracting the attention of the audience, otherwise we are facing a faulty process. In this way, the graphic artist does not have an easy way to communicate with the audience, and the logo as a graphic design product is no exception to this rule.Creativity is the missing link in the process of attracting the attention of the audience, and various ideas and techniques have been presented by artists, theorists and psychologists to find ideas and creatively solve problems, and Edward de Bono is one of these people. French writer and thinker whose main activities are on ways of thinking, finding innovative solutions, creative thinking and teaching thinking as a skill. Among his solutions and theories, we can mention lateral thinking, six thinking patterns and six thinking caps, which is the lateral thinking theory examined in this research.In lateral thinking, in order to prevent the brain from automatically referring to logical pre-existing ideas that only lead to the analysis of the issue and close the way to new ideas, the person intentionally disrupts the problem. In the sense that he temporarily puts aside his judgments and judgments, challenges his presuppositions and mental stereotypes, and gives field to random impulses and instant ideas, so that by breaking the existing structure, it is possible to build it anew. Lateral thinking is the opposite of vertical thinking. Vertical thinking, which is sometimes referred to as linear thinking, gives answers to old and new questions that are often clichéd and fixed, and in fact imitative and uncreative, and its proposal for the movement of the mind is mostly a specific and predefined path. Lack of creativity and using a ready-made product is undoubtedly easy and inexpensive, and this is the achievement of vertical thinking and exactly what the human brain is more interested in, because the brain does not have much desire to be creative and like other organs, it is interested in laziness and following low-cost solutions. The brain cannot be blamed because it is designed in such a way that it tries to think, react and do things with a fixed and uniform formula. It can be said that vertical thinking is the default thinking of the brain that creates mental patterns and their development. Mental patterns mean the same solutions and repeated formulas for solving problems. Lateral thinking, unlike vertical thinking, changes the structure of these forms and creates new forms.Using lateral thinking is an effort to creatively solve the problem and find a new idea in order to attract the attention of the audience and finally convey the message to him. One of the approaches to attract the attention of the audience is defamiliarization. An approach that started from literature and through formalism and opened its way to visual arts. In 1917, the Russian writer and critic Viktor Shklovsky published an article entitled Art as Technique, which is referred to as a statement and policy of defamiliarization. Defamiliarization, like lateral thinking, disrupts the audience’s visual habits that have been formed throughout his life, causing him to draw attention, wonder and think. In fact, defamiliarization is an approach that tries to defamiliarize everything that has become unattractive and unable to attract attention due to everyday life, repetition, and habit, and present it with a new tone, form, and expression. It should be noted that defamiliarization is a goal, not a means, a goal that can be achieved by various means and tools in the visual arts, which includes graphic design, tools such as visual arrays and Gestalt psychology. Lateral thinking also has the potential and talent of using its techniques as a tool for defamiliarization, which this research investigates.In this research, the approach of defamiliarization is attempted as a creative method in the design of signage by using the techniques of lateral thinking theory including choosing the entry point and the scope of attention, creating alternatives, challenging assumptions, dividing into components, lexicalization, dominant ideas and the determining factors investigated. be placed for this purpose, signs including logotype and monogram from among the works of Masoud Nejabati, one of the fourth generation of Iranian graphic designers, have been selected as study samples for examination and analysis in this research.

For the first time, “Yahya Zoka” in a research in 1964, has used the term “Shamayel-Khaneh” (house of icons) of Nasser al-Din Shah. The main question in the present study has been whether the term Shamayel-Khaneh was actually used in the Nasserite period. The sub-questions have been about quiddity of the Shamayel-Khaneh, its properties and related matters. These questions led to discovery of the “Royal Jewelry Document Booklet” at Documentation Center of the “Malek National Library and Museum Institution”, with registration number 6164. This booklet has written in Nasta’liq and Siagh script on European paper and has consisted of 66 sheets in the dimensions of 25/8×16/8 cm, which was written in 1291 AH and some items were added to it until 1317 AH; and therefore, it has belonged to the period of Nasser al-Din Shah and Muzaffar al-Din Shah Qajar. This booklet has related to the documents of Shamayel-Khaneh, books, Qur’an and Bayaz from the calligraphy of Imams (a.s.) etc. along with gold and jewelry in the treasury and court, and has contained the documents of five icons of Imam Ali (a.s.) under the Shamayel-Khaneh. The most important goal, then, has been to find the icons that have documented in the booklet and to reconstruct part of the Shamayel-Khaneh. Therefore, it has tried to explore the icons of the booklet among the icons of the Nasserite period, with the inductive method by comparing the document with other documents, texts, photographs, paintings and icons of the Qajar period, and using the three processes of description, evaluation and analysis. The findings show that the Shamayel-Khaneh has been one of the royal houses and has contained icons of Imam Ali (a.s.) that provided the icons needed for court houses and ceremonies and five icons of it have been part of the royal jewelry. Of these, three were made by Muslims and probably two by Christians or in close association with Christians. These icons have been the most important icons of the Qajar period and the Nasserite court, because they have been part of the royal jewelry of the treasury. The placement of the five icons of Imam Ali (a.s.) at the beginning of the “Royal Jewelry Document Booklet”, before the document of the Qur’an, the Turbah Karbala and other gold and jewelries, etc., as well as the employment of a person in the task of protecting the icons, has shown the position of these icons of Shamayel-Khaneh in the Nasseri court.The first document is about a medal which is oval shaped, silver, decorated with diamonds and contains a large piece of diamond, and a portrait of Hazrat Ali (a.s.) is illustrated in it. This portrait is probably the work of Abulhassan Naghash-bashi and is drawn by him on the order of the king from the icon of the treasury of the previous kings in treasury of Nasserite court, and it was hung on the body of the king for the first time on Wednesday, the 27th of Rabi al-Awwal, 1273 A.H. (1856), during a magnificent ceremony. This medal is mounted on Nasser al-Din Shah’s neck and chest in one photo and three paintings but its current fates is unknown.The second document refers to placing of a photo of an icon of sitting figure of Hazrat Ali (a.s.) under a smooth cut glass, which is made of high quality stone and has a gold frame decorated with diamonds, octagonal cut and crowned head. This icon is probably painted by a Christian painter and is now kept in the treasury of the “National Jewelry Museum”.The third document is related to a watercolor icon of sitting figure of Hazrat Ali (a.s.), which is placed in a gold frame and decorated with jewels such as rubies, emeralds, diamonds, garnet, and turquoise. This icon is the work of Agha-Hassan and is now kept in the treasury of “Golestan Palace”.The fourth document is related to an icon of sitting figure of Hazrat Ali (a.s.) with Imam Hassan and Imam Hussain (a.s.), Salman Farsi and Abu Dharr Ghifari. This black pen icon is installed on a framed canvas and its dimensions were 94.25  × 110.5 cm. According to the document, there is gilding or water gilding on the frame. This icon is the work of Ismail Jalayer and was installed in the funeral ceremony of Nasser al-Din Shah in the Takyeh Dowlat but its current fates is unknown.The fifth document is related to an oil color, undated, unframed, but with framework icon of Hazrat Ali (a.s.) on canvas. This icon is installed in the Takyeh Dowlat during Muharram and Safar ceremonies and is kept in the treasury of the “Astan Quds Razavi Museum” now.

In the Scriptures of Christianity, the question of the end of the world, the end of humanity and the concept of last judgment have always been addressed. From the Christian point of view, humanity will be judged at the end of material life, which is what God considers the judgment of the Day of Resurrection. And given that Christ embodies the truth in Christianity, therefore, God himself is on earth who will make the final judgment. The subject of the last judgment, based on principles derived from the ideology of celestial religions, has also entered the field of visual arts and represented the ultimate judgment of human beings in a symbolic language. This issue is one of the subjects of interest in sacred art, especially Christian painting, which has been frequently the subject of artists’ works in various studies of Christian art history. What will happen to man’s destiny and how the good and evil actions of human beings will be measured. This issue is one of the subjects of the mural “Judgment of the Last” (1934-1934) in the inner part of the Arena Prayer Room, padua city in northern Italy, as the first artistic masterpiece of Giotto di Bundoné, an Italian artist who is also an important milestone in the development of Western painting. In fact, in order to express the concept of the last judgment, the artist has narrated this issue in a huge mural. In this regard, the present study tries to answer the question of what is the concept of visual elements in Giotto’s “Judgment of the Last Judgment” mural from the perspective of Christianity by relying on Panofsky’s approach based on three levels: descriptive, analytical and interpretive. The aim was to understand and interpret the visual elements with the concept of “last judgment” based on principles derived from Christian ideology. In fact, for the first time, Panofsky distinguishes between iconography and iconology. From his perspective, iconography is a method that only pays attention to the work itself and its form, while iconology is distinct from iconography and based on the meaning of the work and is in front of it. In fact, Panofsky believed that by distinguishing between form and meaning in reading images, he believed that these are as follows: 1.Description of pre-iconography(prehistoric), 2.Analysis of iconography (iconography) and, 3.Iconology interpretation (iconology) . In this regard, panofsky theory in relation to iconography and iconology has been discussed first and then based on pre-iconography, iconography analysis and iconology interpretation, the mural of “Judgment of the Last” by Giotto has been analyzed. The findings have been carried out by descriptive-content analysis method, stating that the recognition and interpretation of this mural has provided a platform to understand the concept of the work and the reading of visual elements, by distinguishing between the form and meaning of the work, the reciprocal relationship between the artwork and the belief of Christians at cultural, historical or religious levels, and in general, the prevailing worldview in the artist’s era and time. Because according to Panofsky’s theory, in order to find the meaning of a visual work, reciprocal relationships between the overall level of a culture and the partial level of a work of art must be studied. It can be said that the entire level of painting has provided a context for realizing this cultural background that is rooted in Christian belief. Therefore, according to Christian artist Panofsky’s iconology approach to expressing the sacred concept in his work, with the help of visual elements, he portrayed a purely material and earthly world that, according to Burkhart, “sees Christianity from the perspective of man to God.” In such a way that the human face of Christ is the perfect divine image and the word of God, and Christian art revolves around the personality of Jesus Christ, who adjudicates all human beings based on their actions in this life and faith in Christ himself. Therefore, such illustrations, formed according to biblical teachings, make religious concepts more influential to the audience. Because, on the one hand, the image gives the phenomenon an artistic concept and takes it out of ordinary interpretations, and on the other hand, it provides the ground for displaying invisible truths in the mind of the audience.