فصلنامه تاریخ
پیاپی 69 (تابستان 1402)

Throughout history, Sistan has had its ups and downs in the field of livelihood, economic and agricultural activities as a "cereal warehouses". In this article, researchers will "investigate the relationship between Mongol and Timurids invasion with the spread of insecurity in Sistan", using the library tools and historical-analytical research methods. The findings of the research based on the security theory of Copenhagen school show that types of insecurities by the Mongols and Timurids expressed in the five following dimensions, threatened and destroyed five dimensions of security: 1. Political insecurity: deportation of local rulers, appointment of incompetent people in charge of affairs, lack of life and job security, and destruction of all political lifes in the defeated cities2. Military insecurity by invaders: suppression of local governments and the destruction of military resources in devastated cities, creation of a human shield by prisoners, the forced conscription and determining the right of fodder for the troops passage 3. Environmental insecurity: destruction of the ecosystem, mass slaughter, genocide and burning of animals and plants, and destruction of dams by the Timurids4. Social Insecurity: forced Migration of human resources, prevalence of lies, usury, moral corruption, appointment of incompetent people in important matters of society, valuating the rabble and dunkey keepers5. Economic insecurity: destruction of farms, destruction of irrigation system, determination of taxes, slavery of citizens, confiscation of property and expansion of usury and usury taking by the Mongols and TimuridsVocabulary: Insecurity, Mongols and Timurids, Sistan, Copenhagen Theory.

Assessing the religious policy of Muslim states in history is one of the most controversial points that some scholars have taken a critical look at. The Gurkhanid rule in India is one of the states that has attracted the attention of scholars and they have spoken about it in particular, considering the two different types of religious tolerance or religious confrontation during the reigns of Akber & Aurangzeb. Meanwhile, the transformation of religious politics over a period of one hundred years and its impact on the ruling process of the imperial dynasty is important because it is considered a criterion for the decline of the Gurkhans of India. Relying on a descriptive-analytical method and based on theoretical and library studies, this study examines the practice of the Aurangzeb government with the two main sections of the Indian Muslim community, namely Sunnis and Shiites. Although critics argue that Aurangzeb abandoned the multifaceted religious heritage of his predecessors, inciting the majority of Indian society against the Islamic system and destroying his dynasty by imposing taxes on non-Muslims and destroying Indian temples, it should not be forgotten. The shift in the balance in favor of the Muslims, through interaction with the Sunnis and confrontation with the Shiites, all ended to the detriment of India's Muslim minority. It made alliance between Shiites and Sunnis in India impossible and involved the majority of Indo-religions with Muslims. He incited Hindus and Sikhs against the Gurkhani government and rendered Shiites and Sunnis incapable of

Knowledge of the personal religion of Cyrus the Great has always been of interest to historians. However, due to the scarcity of sources and the lack of direct reference to the religion of Cyrus in historical documents and archaeological sources, various studies have not yet reached a definite and clear conclusion. But the point that has received less attention from researchers is the use of two sciences, mythology and linguistics, to illuminate this dark point in history. Therefore, in conducting this research, first the hypothesis has been raised that by using the information available in Greek and Roman sources, how can we gain knowledge of Cyrus's personal religion and then it has been discussed that the knowledge of mythology based on linguistics Ancient, how they will help us to reach a clear answer in this discussion. Therefore, with the knowledge of the above-mentioned issues, an attempt has been made to use the evidence, data and information contained in historical documents written by historians of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, and then analyze these data and measure the information of historical sources, which are mainly It has been obtained from foreign sources that with the surviving documents of ancient Iranian mythology and a glimpse into linguistics, we can for the first time obtain a clear answer in this field and obtain information about the personal religion of Cyrus the Achaemenid.

Greece has had a turbulent history; sometimes at the hight of power and sometimes at weakest levels. Troy War is one of the Greek historical events that many chronicle writers and archeologists have studied. Even the Troy war was the reason that Homer composed Iliad and Odyssey; the works influenced Greek classic literature. Some believe the Troy war is not more than a fiction, but chronicle writers like Herodot and Tocidid consider it as real. Also the great archeologist Sheliman did lots of research in 1876 and concluded that Troy war did happen in fact. The Troy war occured between Greece and Troy and Homer considered the reason of the war to be the fact that Paris kidnapped Helen. Some believe this reason is not convincing enough to cause a 10-year war; thus in this study we try to delve into the reasons of the Troy war and analyze its political and economical outcomes. According to Will Dorant economic and political reasons are the main reasons of the war. In the war, not only the atheletes but also the gods played roles, and even each one defended one side of the war and moved the war onwards.

The Ismailis who have been given various names are an extension of the Shiite religion and believe Ismael and his son are righteous for Imamate after Imam Jafar Sadegh. Through its ups and downs, this dynasty had interactions and confrontations with the incumbent governments among which their interaction with the Samanid, as one of the most Iranian government of the history, is significantly important. Therefore, based on the necessity of explaining and recognizing the history of the Samanids and the type of their interaction with the Ismailis, in this descriptive-analytical study, we will examine the most important social contexts of the Samanids' tolerance of the Ismailis and explain its consequences. In addition, rooting out the causes and factors of the Ismaili's influence and expansion, especially among the Samanids and the role and policies of the political and cultural leaders of the two sides in the results of these ups and downs, is another case that this study intends to explain. The results of this study indicated that areas like the Iranian origin of the Samanids, their open religious policy, the influence of Shiite ideas on the Samanid rulers and the relative economic, social and security stability in Khorasan and Transoxiana were among the factors that paved the way for positive Samanid interaction with the Ismailis which , in consequence, made the Ismailis able to take advantage of this opportunity to succeed in their invitation and to expand the realm of their invitation.

By the Sassanid government, Ardeshir Babakan chose Ctesiphon as the capital. This city played a significant role in creation of the country’s political unity and turned it into a political, economic, and social center. Due to locating on important commercial and trade routes, such as the Silk Road and the Persian Gulf Sea to the Indian Ocean, Ctesiphon was politically and strategically of particular importance in Mesopotamia. At the end of the Sassanid government, given the turbulent political, economic, and social situation, Ctesiphon lost its initial prosperity. In terms of trade and commerce, the Sassanid capital played the key role in international relations since the Iranian cities were the trade and industry center during the Sassanid era. Given the kings’ frequent comings and goings in the last years of the Sassanid government, political and military instability in Ctesiphon led to turmoil in the capital and other subordinate states as well as revolts of the states’ governors and rulers in various parts of the country. Research method In the present paper, based on its theoretical nature, the historical, explanatory, and analytical research method is employed and library method is used for collecting data. The present paper is aimed at explaining the Ctesiphon’s role and position in the political and economic equations of the Sassanid era.

The period of Shah Abbas created new conditions in internal relations that led to the differentiation of this period from Safavid history. This period arose through the reconstruction and adherence to the institutions that formed and sustained the Safavid political system.Previously, the institutions of the Safavid political system, despite the various ups and downs that coordinated the structure and functioning of the government, became critical with the death of Shah Tahmasb and the failure to appoint a successor.This article tries to explain the mechanism of interactions of this period with the approach of historical institutionalism that the institutions and rules created by the Safavid system led to the employment of Shah Abbas and the consolidation of his period.In response to the reasons for the coherence of the Shah Abbas period, the article follows the assumption that adherence to the laws and institutions established in this period creates relationships that can create reconciliation and balance despite the conflict between groups, which instability Destroys. As a result of convergence, differentiation and coherence of this period was formed.

The Caucasus region has been a special importance to Iran throughout history, and when the central government of Iran was weak, the first part that separated from Iran was the Caucasus region, and during the strong rule of central Iran, the first part that was annexed to Iran was the Caucasus region. The successors of Peter the Great wanted the north of Iran and the Ottomans wanted the west of Iran and over the years they have tried to infiltrate this region. During the Afghan occupation of Iran, the Ottomans occupied Azerbaijan and made the Russian Empire envy. Nader Shah (king of Iran) came to the Caucasus region in 1725-1726 AD and realized the political-military goals of Russia and the Ottomans, who had seized parts of the region by force. Nader was able to defeat the Ottoman forces and capture the Karabakh region. The reasons for the instability in dominating of the central government of Iran in this region have been partly related to the policies of the Iranian rulers and partly to the territorial expansion of the neighbors of this region throughout history. In this article, we will examine Nader Shah's policies in this region with an analytical and descriptive method. Findings show that Nader Shah's policy weakened the ties of the Karabakh region with the Iranian government and the tendency of the Khans to join the powerful governments.

The nineteenth century AD is one of the most important and influential periods in the history of Iran. The emergence of great European powers and their extensive interference in the internal affairs of Iran on the one hand threatened the political-economic independence of the country and on the other hand introduced Iranian intellectuals to Western science and technology. Iran's strategic position, which was adjacent to the two superpowers at the time, Russia and Britain, and the two countries' competition for greater benefits led to the signing of treaties and the concession of concessions to them. European ambassadors and representatives, examining the geographical situation and resources of Iran, began to compile works that, although mainly serving the national interests of their respective countries, can be considered in some respects, but their use must be carefully considered. This study shows that the reports and works of British tourists and ambassadors from the Nasserite Iranian society, which pointed to the tyranny of the governing body, the weakness and ignorance of the people about the world situation, internal differences between different ethnicities, factors of Iran's decline and backwardness , Be reviewed.

Khuzestan province was one of the most important provinces in Iran, which was of special importance both after and before the advent of Islam. Meanwhile, its special position has led to the migration of various ethnic groups to it over the centuries. This state, which was part of their territory during the Sassanid era, was conquered by the Muslims during the second caliphate, and as a result, the conquest of the conquering Arabs led to special settlement and social changes in this state. Due to its strategic location, resources, geographical conditions, special center, it was a place for various tribes to live during the ages and centuries, and it was a passage for the transportation of merchants' goods, as well as a passage for ordinary people. These included Musab, Iraq, Isfahan, Fars and Lorestan. The presence of tribes with different religions and ethnicities shows the special importance of this state, which is evident from the letter that has been applied to it over the years. In this article, with the reference to the climatic situation of Khuzestan and referring to the name of Khuzestan, we intend to introduce this state before the advent of Islam and especially the historical geography of this important state.

In this study, which has been compiled as a library, an attempt has been made to examine the attitude of Muslim Arabs towards the monetary system of Iran, which was the main basis of the Sassanid financial system. Historical narrations show that the second caliph, considering the lack of Arab history in government and financial affairs, accepted the Iranian financial system and made adjustments to bring it in line with Islam. In the financial system inherited from Muslims, money and coins are of great importance. It was because in addition to facilitating trade, it would gain the wealth of the Islamic Caliphate, so the Islamic caliphs minted the Sassanid coins again with a few changes in the name of the Sassanid Arabs, and until 1977, when Abdul Malik minted the first independent Islamic coin, The east was the same Sassanid Arab coins, and from this year onwards, independent Islamic coins were minted in the lands of the Islamic Caliphate in the east and west, and of course each caliph made changes to its design and role, and perhaps these coins are called He himself became famous.

The present study aims at the jurisprudential challenges of waiting sukuk; Siri has been done in historical jurisprudential texts. In this research, the research method is descriptive-analytical and the method of data collection is library. The results showed that since bonds are based on interest-bearing loans, they are considered usury from the Islamic point of view and are forbidden; Therefore, in Islamic countries, these bonds can not be used for financing. To solve this problem, participation papers were first issued; But because these bonds are issued on the basis of a physical plan, and when companies have difficulty purchasing assets and providing liquidity, the bonds have no practical partnership, financial specialists designed new financial instruments. The same sukuk was created.The present study aims at the jurisprudential challenges of waiting sukuk; Siri has been done in historical jurisprudential texts. In this research, the research method is descriptive-analytical and the method of data collection is library. The results showed that since bonds are based on interest-bearing loans, they are considered usury from the Islamic point of view and are forbidden; Therefore, in Islamic countries, these bonds can not be used for financing. To solve this problem, participation papers were first issued; But because these bonds are issued on the basis of a physical plan, and when companies have difficulty purchasing assets and providing liquidity, the bonds have no practical partnership, financial specialists designed new financial instruments. The same sukuk was created.

The architecture of Sasanian era is, in fact, continuation and development of Parthian architecture and, at the same time, reminiscent of Achaemenid architecture. By the formation of Sasanian empire, Iran’s society began to thrive, and by articulation of a precise, effective plan regarding urban development, architecture, and industrialization of the society, it absorbed the attention of civilized Roman and Hellenistic world. The culture and art of Sasanian followed those of Achaemenid and Parthian. Sasanians tried to catch up with the Achaemenid culture. They showed their hegemony relative to prior eras in the arts of architecture, sculpture, plastering, and building domical arches as well as pillarless, vast halls. In architecture, reliefs, and sculptures of Sasanian era, differences and similarities, particularly in the topic and content, are seen compared to those of Achaemenid era. Sasanian dynasty founder, Ardashir I was the governor of Darabgerd, Pars before taking the throne and founded it and Gaur city, also known as Firuzabad, circularly based on the traditional architecture of Parthian era. In this article conducted with analytical-descriptive method, questions like “what were the building method, materials, and functions of buildings in Sasanian era?” and “what was its difference with Achaemenid architecture?” will be answered.