نشریه تاملات اخلاقی
سال چهارم شماره 4 (پیاپی 16، Winter 2023)

One of the reasons that make animals deserving of violence is the idea of a lack of rationality and subjectivity in them, but if it is possible to recognize some kind of subjectivity for an animal, we can hope for a future where the animal will no longer be under the control of any human abuse. In this regard, this research considers the problem and risk of interaction between humans and animals with a new and practical approach. The general approach and method in this research is "phenomenology" and specifically "ethical phenomenology", which results in adopting four questions regarding animal pain and suffering, animal love, animal rights, and animal subjectivity. Therefore, we put the order and sequence of these four things in a continuum, one end of which is sense and experience, and the other end is concept and generality so that we can finally reach "specific general" rules. Finally, in order to reduce the suffering, evil and malice in the phenomenological subjectivity, we depict the subject of the animal in a way that does not make us fall from life and the result is a reduction of cruelty among the subjects-of-a-life. In this way, in this type of argument, neither human becomes animal nor does animal become human. It is a human convention versus a natural and theological convention that takes a step toward avoiding the "residues of unmodern human behavior that treat animals as instruments." Therefore, the way to reduce evil for humans is to accept the type and level of rights for animals.

Today, attention to animal rights has a special place, and one of the famous moral philosophers who pay special attention to animal rights is Peter Singer. He has raised several reasons for the wrongness of human use of animals, including the argument of speciesism and the wrongness of inflicting pain and suffering on animals. In addition to these two arguments, he has paid close attention to the relationship between excessive use of animals and environmental destruction. Today, a significant share of environmental destruction is caused by industrial livestock farms, which, by producing meat, destroy plant resources, emit greenhouse gases, and damage nature. Singer considers the situation caused by the way humans treat animals and considers it related to religious teachings about humans and animals. Considering meat-eating as immoral and rejecting religion's opinion on this, he suggests vegetarianism to preserve the environment. In this article, while examining and criticizing this argument, it is clear that the most important factor of environmental destruction is excessive and undesirable use of animals by humans. The problem of the environment can be solved by modifying the attitude of man towards the environment and how to organize his use of nature, which is also emphasized by religion. If the human use of the environment, of which the animal is a part, is done in a purposeful and responsible manner, it will not only cause the destruction of the environment, but it will also lead to its better preservation and, as a result, respect for the animal's rights. The need to emphasize the reform of the structure instead of banning consumption, paying attention to the harms of vegetarianism, and the need to properly understand the opinion of religion, especially Islam, are among the criticisms that can be made to Singer.

In his transcendent theosophy, Mulla Sadra practically proved that reasoning, taste, enlightenment and whatever obtained through revelation lead to one truth. Based on the principality of existence and typical unity (vahdate senkhi), Mulla Sadra also expounded the philosophical discussions and issues as a single truth.This caused many distinctions and dualities in transcendent theosiphy terminate unity. As is the case with the duality of theoretical and practical powers of man, which also lead to the unity and harmony of powers. And practical wisdom was revived in transcendent theosophy along with theoretical wisdom as the levels of single wisdom in combination with practical and mystical conduct after it had ceased to be in vogue in the Islamic philosophy with the rise of Avicennan philosophyphilosophy. The main objective of this research is to investigate Mulla Sadra's approach to practical theosophy and its principles and outcomes; has followed a descriptive and analytical method of research. The findings indicate that in transcendent theosophy, practical wisdom is presented as a distinct practical conduct, including the common and comprehensive philosophical term peripatetic (masha'ie) in peripatetic theosophy, mysticism and religion, along with theoretical theosophy as the level of truth of the unit of wisdom.

“Courage” has long been considered one of the important and common moral virtues of various human societies. Over the centuries, there have been different and diverse understandings of this moral virtue, which have led to spreading and narrowing the scope of its application in relation with vices and the other concepts. This difference and diversity of understandings of this virtue can also be seen among the ancient Greek philosophers. Aristotle also discussed this moral virtue in detail in his ethical works, especially in his famous book Nicomachean Ethics. The effort to find the components of the virtue of courage in the very subtle words of Aristotle in that book leads us to the nature of courage. In this article, first we extract and express the components of the virtue of courage in Nicomachean Ethics.Then, based on the obtained components, we give an analysis of Aristotle’s general viewpoint about the nature of courage, and, finally, we evaluate Aristotle’s views in Nicomachean Ethics about the virtue of courage.