Twitter, echo chamber and intensifying political polarizationCase study: reactions of Persian Twitter users to events in Iran (years 1400-1401)

IntroductionIn recent decades, the advent of the Internet and social media platforms has had a profound influence on global interpersonal dynamics. This transformative process has given rise to a novel social life known as the network society, as conceptualized by Manuel Castells (2005). Within the network society, individuals can instantly access and disseminate information, enabling simultaneous communication across geographical boundaries. Consequently, the proliferation of large-scale online platforms has exerted substantial impacts on economic, social, political, and cultural domains.Among the existing platforms, Twitter focuses more on politics than other social media such as Instagram and Telegram. Twitter's inherent nature lends itself to users expressing concise and rapid opinions, particularly regarding public and political affairs. In Iran, this platform primarily serves as a hub for public and political activists. Furthermore, the prevalent practice of sharing tweets on more popular social media such as Telegram and Instagram often leads to the dissemination of media content flowing from Twitter. Beyond serving as a mere outlet for expressing diverse perspectives on events and political matters, Twitter fosters an environment that enables user interaction and influence concerning these events. The communication and reactions of users on this platform can have an impact on political opinions and even shape broader perspectives. PurposeWhile the number of Twitter users in Iran may be relatively low, with only 3% of people reported to be using Twitter according to a recent survey by the Iranian Student Opinion Center (ISPA) in June 2022n, the platform holds significant influence over politics in Iranian society. This is primarily due to the active participation of political and social activists who make up the majority of Twitter users in the country. Notably, both local and international media outlets, as well as political activists, heavily rely on Twitter for disseminating information and engaging in discussions. Furthermore, popular topics and discussions on Twitter often find their way to other platforms such as Telegram, Instagram, and even email, indirectly exposing a wider audience to Twitter's impact. Despite these observations, the relationship between Twitter and the political landscape in Iranian society has yet to be thoroughly investigated in a scientific and systematic manner, highlighting the need for further research in this area.Given the evolving political landscape in Iran, particularly in light of the significant events in October and November of 2022, it has become increasingly vital to explore the association between Twitter and the emergence and characteristics of these developments. Notably, Iran's political environment has long exhibited a stable feature of bipolarity, making it the focal point of this article. The primary objective of this research is to investigate the manifestation and perpetuation of these polarizations within the Persian-speaking user base on Twitter. By doing so, the study aims to shed light on how political polarization in Iran is mirrored and perpetuated within the Twitter sphere. MethodologyThis research employs a qualitative approach, utilizing participatory observation and case study methods. Purposeful sampling is employed to examine specific events that offer significant insights into the research topic. Data collection involves observation and data mining techniques. Initially, the researcher presents their observations on Twitter, while also independently analyzing unique situations aligned with the research question through data mining. To support the research objectives, a selection of noteworthy economic, political, social, cultural, and sports events in the years 1400 and 1401 are studied, as observed on Twitter, to validate and reinforce the findings from participatory observation. Social Network Analysis (SNA) methodology is employed in this section. The importance of nodes is primarily measured using the PageRank centrality measure, with each node's size and tag size corresponding to its PageRank centrality. In the PageRank centrality measure, a node's significance is determined not only by the number of its connected nodes but also by the importance of these nodes. Node classification into distinct communities is achieved through Lovin's algorithm (Blondel et al., 2008). Graph visualization predominantly utilizes the Force Atlas 2 algorithm (Jacomy et al., 2014). Gephi software is employed for graph illustration and analysis purposes. FindingsThe findings of this research reveal the following: First, within the Twitter space, the presence of anonymous users, bots, and organized accounts is prominent, contributing to the propagation of computational propaganda.Second, likes and retweets by users have become tools for drawing boundaries and intensifying mistrust and polarization.Third, during periods of societal tension, Twitter users tend to silence opposing voices through blocking and unfollowing, creating further polarization and reinforcing echo chambers. This limits exposure to diverse and conflicting opinions, as social media, instead of being platforms for diverse voices, inadvertently contribute to the silencing of differing perspectives.Fourth, in this polarized environment, voices in the middle ground users have fewer opportunities to emerge, as they are subjected to negative labeling from both ends of the spectrum. The term "middleman" is frequently used to protest against individuals expressing differing opinions within the bipolar atmosphere of Twitter.Fifth, different views are disregarded by “checking” individuals' past records, as this checking has become a significant criterion for discerning right from wrong and a means to suppress diverse thoughts and voices.Sixth, Persian Twitter demonstrates a bipolar atmosphere across various topics. The pattern of polarization usually involves a minority pole and a majority pole. The majority pole encompasses diverse spectrums and groups, while the opposing spectrum to the Islamic Republic holds a louder and clearer voice, often leading to the marginalization of moderate perspectives.The research findings indicate a polarized atmosphere within the Twitter environment that hinders communication and dialogue between different groups. While this situation may reflect social and political conditions, Twitter algorithms, content suggestion mechanisms, and features like blocking, unfollowing, and muting have also played a role in shaping and intensifying polarization, effectively creating an echo chamber within the Twitter space. ConclusionObserving the Twitter platform prompts us to think about its essence. Twitter appears to possess a distinct character and nature characterized by blocking and unfollowing, condemnation of moderation as the "middleman," widespread online hate speech, and a polarized environment. This attribute can perhaps be attributed to Twitter's constraint of limited characters per tweet, setting it apart from social media like Facebook or Instagram. The findings reveal the prevalence of distrust, intolerance, insults, and aggression within political discussions on Twitter, hindering the cultivation of equitable dialogue. Within the Twitter space, the interplay of three factors—namely, the formation of "communities of like-minded individuals," the removal of dissenting perspectives through blocking and unfollowing to avoid the challenges of disagreement, and the existence of "filter bubbles"—has contributed to the creation of an echo chamber, amplifying polarization within the Twitter realm. One notable aspect of this bipolar environment is the inherent mistrust and escalation of verbal violence observed between opposing poles, even targeting individuals positioned among the bipolar factions. As this situation becomes more pervasive, users who do not align with either pole, forming a gray area, choose silence out of fear of isolation, consequently intensifying the spiral of silence. With the fading influence of the middle ground users, the cycle of bipolarity further deepens. NoveltyThe phenomenon of political polarization within the Twitter sphere has been extensively explored in various studies. However, the specific context of Iranian Twitter users remains largely uninvestigated, prompting this research to apply existing theories to the Iranian society. In conducting this study, unique characteristics observed within Persian Twitter were examined, shedding light on behaviors that have not been extensively studied in comparable research. One such behavior is the act of checking individuals' past and disregarding their current positions based on their previous opinions on a given topic. This particular behavior is distinct to the polarized Twitter environment within other communities.