نشریه مطالعات معماری ایران
سال نهم شماره 18 (پاییز و زمستان 1399)

Presently, teaching history of Iranian and world architecture in universities is meant to introduce architectural products of the past. The contents and teaching methods employed do not make a clear relationship with the architectural practice of students. Although most of the courses in architectural schools are properly coordinated for teaching "architectural design", but there are two serious disadvantages: one, lack of attention to the "programming" phase, and the other, not taking advantage of architecture history to analyze valuable examples designed and built in the past. Both affect the future career of students. The present paper seeks to find: a suitable purpose and method for teaching architectural history; the benefits of studying Iranian and world architectural history; and ways to learn from past architecture for current students. This study employs logical reasoning with an analytic-interpretive approach. The hypothesis is that in architecture, "method of construction" is that which is linked with history, and "method of design" or "how space is organized" is that which goes beyond time. Despite all efforts to distance from architectural heritage, we can still learn valuable design lessons from the history of architecture. Analysis of spatial patterns and spatial organization models seen in architectural designs of the past can be used to instruct architectural design. The present study refers to an example of such patterns and then proposes a strategy for teaching architectural history to make it applicable for architecture design.

One of the common trends in researching Persian gardens is assuming them as introverted phenomena, enclosed inside their walls and separated from their surrounding context. In this view, some important features of gardens are ignored. On the other hand, reconstructing the original image of gardens in the contemporary urban landscape gets harder every day due to rapid urban changes. This makes it necessary to study and preserve the historic urban landscapes and their constituent elements. Since urban structure in the Safavid period was directly influenced by gardens built in cities, especially royal gardens, this study focuses on identifying the relation of gardens and the city in Safavid Ashraf al-Belād. This paper aims to find out the quality of the connections between the gardens as the key elements of a historic urban landscape with other components. For this, the historical research approach was used for finding the hidden aspects of this connection. Data and documents were arranged according to the stages of the development of the city. Old and contemporary urban structures were then compared and analyzed based on documented morphological evidence. The results of this research show the structural connection between the royal gardens and the historic city, which has been faded over the years; some expressions of which include the status of these gardens in urban planning stages, urban networks, urban landscape hierarchy systems, and urban density. Based on these results, some qualities of this connection regarding the urban identity are revealed, without which both the values of the city and the heritage of the gardens would be lost.

Despite the prominent role of traditional master masons of Iran in the creation of historical architecture, they have rarely been in the spotlight of historians. Limited information, therefore, is available today about their guild traditions, thoughts, techniques and skills, and their professional lives. In the contemporary era, with the development of the modern discipline of restoration, a new group of master masons emerged who are at the same time associated with the apprenticeship traditions in their guilds and families, and also work under the supervision of academic restorers and architects. Thus, with an “incomplete return”, these masters found a way back to historical monuments and work in traditional architecture workshops. This article examines the connection of contemporary master masons with historical monuments by the help of the Rezāyat family, one of the master-mason families of Isfahan. How these masters deal with historical monuments, the information they have in mind about monuments, and how they use this knowledge to design new works were investigated thoroughly. To answer these questions, the required information was collected by conducting semi-structured and open-ended interviews, oral history method, as well as observation and taking field notes about their works and design and construction methods they utilized. The collected data were analyzed by coding based on grounded theory. Accordingly, the connection of the master masons of the Rezāyat family with the historical monuments in Isfahan can be explained at five levels: coexistence, reading, memorizing, inspiration, and referencing (general and specific). The analysis of these qualities shows that historical monuments are critical resources in the schema of these masters. The masons of the Rezāyat family reside in a Seljuq-built, subjective-objective territory in Isfahan, centralized in the Joubareh neighborhood. They have observed historical elements since their childhood, and studied, remembered, and utilized them in their new endeavors like lessons learned in a "school of architectural design."

This research presents the traditional construction details of flat wood beam ceilings and a typology of such ceilings in Shiraz historical houses, as well as the spaces that each type is used in. In addition to the development of technical knowledge, this study would also contribute to the systematic conservation of historical buildings. Moreover, recognition of wood as a natural material and its harmony with other construction elements and materials in historical buildings, as well as its environmental sustainability is important. This typological research uses a qualitative case study methodology through direct field survey and drawing the details of the ceilings in case houses. The collected data is then compared and analyzed regarding construction details and the spaces where each type is used. The findings show two major types for flat wood beam ceilings in Shiraz historical houses: “exposed” and “dropped” ceilings. The first type has two sub-types: simple ceilings, which are mostly used in corridors and sometimes in rooms; and ceilings in which load-bearing beams boast outstanding decorations and are mainly used in the major mirror halls or the main room of the house. In the second type of ceilings, the underneath coverage can be of gypsum plaster, wooden lattices, or wood lining. The gypsum type is rarely decorated, and therefore is used in corridors. The decorative lattice or lining types are used in the main hall or the seh-dari and panj-dari rooms, and if simple, are used in other rooms of the house and sometimes in corridors.

In an article entitled "Un diptique de foundation en ceramique lustrée, Kašan 711/1312", Chahriyar Adle studied two pieces of luster circular tiles preserved in the Sèvres Ceramics Museum in Paris. According to the tiles inscriptions, they were made in connection with a Shiite monument in Kashan. One of the tiles with a prominent horseshoe-like edge is the narrator of a dream from 711 AH/1312 AD. According to the description of the mentioned dream, Imam Ali and Imam Mahdi came to Kashan on the way to India, where Imam Ali issued an order to build a turbatkhāneh, so those who cannot visit them visit that place. Despite the studies carried out, including reference to the turbatkhānehchr('39')s general location, the building itself and its exact location have not been identified yet. Therefore, these questions can be asked whether the mentioned pair of luster tiles refer to a specific building? And more importantly, if the building is identifiable, where is it located, and what are its characteristics? This article seeks to find the mentioned turbatkhāneh and clarify its main features. This study is based on a historical interpretive method in which the inscriptionschr('39') text is studied and interpreted. Related historical texts are reviewed, and a large area in the north of the citychr('39')s historical barrier is examined to provide answers to questions. Also, an abandoned religious placechr('39')s exact location is studied, and the remains of the mentioned place are compared with some examples to clarify the more accurate characteristics and the historical period of its construction. This studychr('39')s findings show that a dome chamber in the north of Salehābād Cemetery, located outside Kashanchr('39')s barrier, is the same building whose construction history is written on the desired luster tiles. The studies show the relationship between these two unique tiles and a small domed building in the north of Kashanchr('39')s barrier in the Salehābād area; Where there was another building until 2018 called Ghadmagāh-i Ali. These two tiles have survived to tell a part of Kashanchr('39')s cultural and artistic history and, of course, to clarify the role and position of a forgotten religious place in Kashanchr('39')s Shiite culture.

Soundscape is a new branch of urban studies that deals with the quality of the sound heard in addition to the quantities of sound. Soundscape is a mental and perceptual concept. Therefore, there are several characteristics involved in its quality that can be generally divided into two categories of objective and subjective components. Sound Pressure Level (SPL) is the most important objective component and is directly related to the sound loudness of sound and sonic comfort. The present study seeks to determine how the values of SPL and peoplechrs duration of exposure to sounds of Sarâs of Tabriz Bazaar affect the perceptual desirability of the soundscape of those spaces. The values of SPL have been measured in the old and middle Haj HosseinQoli and Mirza Mohammad Sarâs and the perceptual quality of those soundscapes has been evaluated from the sight of individuals. By analyzing the correlation and adaptation of the research findings with the upstream sciences, the effect of SPL, duration and reason for presence in Bazaar on the mental quality of the soundscape has been determined. The results indicate that all three studied Sarâs are objectively tranquil and sonic comfortable spaces. But longer the exposure time to sound of Bazaar increases the less sonic comfort and the desirability of the soundscape. Architectural cavities and wall materials cause low SPL values. But unwanted sounds that have a sudden onset and a relatively high volume can reduce the sonic comfort and have a detrimental effect on the quality of the soundscape. Therefore, it is necessary to consider a component called urban sound clarity in the study of soundscapes of tranquil urban spaces. This is especially important for people who have been exposed to a particular soundscape for a long time.

Concurrent with political events of the Qajar era and the need to establish a new government center in the west of Iran to help with securing territories and controlling riots and unrest, Fath ‘Ali Shah, the second Qajar King, commissioned Yusuf Khan Gorji to build a fortress in the area previously called ʿEraq-e ʿAjam. After a short time, the new town, which was called Arak or Sultan-abad, went under many changes. Arak is one of the few towns built in the Qajar period according to a pre-designed plan, originally conceived as a military fortress by its founders. It has prominent features that have been hardly studied, the most important of which is the military forum or “Arg.” Along with the development of the city, the military function faded in a short time. The Arg square underwent many changes including changes in its function and surrounding buildings such as residential quarters, baths, a mosque, and a school, which were either rebuilt or destroyed during the recent century. Library research and review of travelogues, documents, maps, and available historical photographs of the Arg Square were done in a descriptive-historical method, showing that according to historical milestones and critical periods in the life of Arak, eight stages can be traced to study the development of the Arg Square.  In each stage, physical changes in the buildings around this square can be identified based on historical documents. These stages show the development of the city from its foundation and construction to the present, its transformation from a military town to a commercial and then industrial one, followed by changes in the buildings and function of the Arg Square.

This article discusses public education of architecture as an important aspect of improving public knowledge. Assessing public understanding of architecture is itself an emerging field of study. In this research, educational content was prepared to introduce criteria of fine architecture, and after the completion of the course, the general understanding and knowledge of adolescents in six boys and six girls high schools in Damghan regarding architecture was measured and compared with the results of the assessments before taking the course. Data from a previous study in the same field was used as the data for the control group. The results of this survey show that the training was effective in improving the link between architecture and people and confirm the role of educational content in changing views, refining attitudes toward architecture, and transferring cultural values and architectural identity. This effectiveness means an introduction to compiling or editing textbooks for secondary school, leading to further research in the field of adolescent understanding of architecture.

Two common trends in the arts of different cultures and civilizations have principally been, first, preserving and developing native accomplishments, and second, adopting from foreign and imported elements. This dual function existed in Persian civilization from the pre-Islamic to the middle and late Islamic periods, wherein non-native elements found their way into the culture and were adopted or transformed over the course of time. Cornucopia or Horn of Plenty is among such non-native designs, the origin of which dates back to ancient Greek mythology. Cornucopia first appeared in the art of successors of Alexander in Iran, i.e., the Seleucids and the Parthians. After a long absence, it reappeared in the art and architecture of the Qajar period as a result of Europeanization. The present research studies the probable continuation of this decorative motif from pre-Islamic Persian art to the architecture of the late Qajar era, employing a historical method and descriptive-analytical approach. Investigating the visual characteristics of cornucopia, its juxtaposition with native and non-native elements, as well as the contributory factors in motivating artists and artisans of the Qajar period in applying this motif are among the aims to be pursued. The results demonstrate that the use of cornucopia in Qajar architectural decoration (stuccowork, tilework, wall painting) was the outcome of a trend of farangi-sazi (Europeanization), the extreme manifestation of which could be seen from the second half of the Qajar period (Nasserid reign) in all aspects of the social, cultural, and artistic life in Iran. This motif appeared in architectural decorations following the commercial and cultural interactions Iran established with European countries, which led to an acquaintance with western visual motifs. However, this motif was integrated into indigenous decorative artwork in the atmosphere of Persian deep-rooted traditions. The result of this native transformation appears in a harmonious composition with other Persian decorative elements. Persianized cornucopia never appears singularly, but as an element of stylized floral motifs or arabesques as are the defining characteristic of Persian art and architecture.

The concept of ‘tacit knowledge,’ first introduced by Michael Polanyi in the mid-twentieth century, has been used in several academic fields and developed in some approaches. However, in architectural theory, it has maintained its commitment to Polanyi’s original definition as a type of mysterious knowledge on which designers work. This article aims to apply one of the developed tacit knowledge approaches to architecture and examine its potentials and limitations. This approach is of Harry Collins in the field of sociology of science, as it is represented in some of his latest written works. Knowledge is transmittable based on Collins’ model. The one that can be transmitted through physical means is called explicit knowledge, while tacit knowledge is the knowledge that cannot be explicated or is not explicated and can only be transmitted through hanging around with others who already have it. There are three types of tacit knowledge. The first type is called “the Relational Tacit Knowledge,” which includes the knowledge remaining unspoken due to some social contingencies. The second type is “the Somatic Tacit Knowledge,” inscribed in the human body and brain’s natural substance. The third type is “the Collective Tacit Knowledge,” which is stored in the society and can be transmitted through sustained living in it.Applying this model to architecture, the transmittable part of architectural knowledge divides into two parts: explicit and tacit knowledge. The architectural tacit knowledge involves the somatic and the collective types. The architectural somatic knowledge is stored in the architect’s body and brain and can be transmitted to him/ her through individual contact with the other agents who have it. However, it can also be acquired through practical experience, try and error, and so on, without having any human sender. Architectural collective knowledge is the knowledge that is mostly stored in the collective memory of three groups: the colleagues group, the architectural community, and the society. It includes these groups members’ expectations and their values about pleasant and desirable architectural practices. Nonetheless, it seems that architectural practice is based on some kinds of tacit knowledge which are neither somatic nor collective. This issue makes this question still open: Is architectural tacit knowledge only composed of somatic and collective types? If it is not, which theoretical basis can be used for discerning the other types/ aspects of architectural tacit knowledge.

After Tehran was chosen as the capital, the supply of water was one of the necessary measures to be taken as the population increased. In addition to building new qanats, other solutions such as transferring water from the rivers descending the Alborz Mountains could supply the city with drinking water. The maps studied in this research document this engineering action, i.e., to convey water by building a canal from the Karaj River to the city of Tehran. The colored maps are preserved in the Golestan Palace and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. They contain information about how the canal was built, but with no title, date, cartographer, or exact location. The research question is, what historical and engineering facts can be drawn by rereading the maps, and what other historical architectural and urban achievements do these documents show? The research method employed is descriptive-historical, because the emphasis is on a historical document and narrating an event in the past (Qajar period). This study is also document research because reviewing a visual document is the basis of the research work. This research aims to reread the map as a document in engineering history and to shed light on a chapter of Tehran’s history during the Qajar period. The results show that due to a decrease in water supply, the repair of the canal was on the agenda. Plans for the restoration of the Karaj canal around 1267 AH were most probably made by one of the engineers of the Qajar court, in the early years of Nasser al-Din Shah’s reign, under the ministry of Amir Kabir. The project, however, was initiated by the order of Mohammad Shah, under the ministry of Haj Mirza Aqassi.

It’s been a long time that thinkers in the field of architecture and other adjacent fileds, ask of the nature of architecture and discuss about that; but their debates will not end up until they answer this question: What are the main meanings of the word “architecture”? The word “Architecture” has different meanings in today Persian and many other languages, but it is not clear that which meanings of this word are primay and explicit and which meanings are secondary and implicit for Architecture as a word. In this article we ask of different meanings of the word “architecture” and try to distinguish between its primary or explicit and secondary or implicit meanings. To do that, we rely on the doctrines provided by the science of Principles of Jurisprudence. According to this article, the word architecture refers to three main meanings in Persian: 1. A part of human knowledge or some characteristics of that knowledge; 2. A part of human actions or some characteristics of that actions; 3. Building or building complex or visual characteristics of them. The first and second meanings are the main and explicit meanings of the word architecture and the third one, is a secondary and implicit meaning of the word architecture. This research is based on Thematic Analysis as research method, and Logical reasoning as research strategy. The article is organized into four main chapter: 1. Introduction; 2. The science of Principles of Jurisprudence and its doctrins about The Words; 3. Surveying the meanings of the word architecture; and 4. The result.