نشریه مطالعات معماری ایران
سال دوازدهم شماره 23 (بهار و تابستان 1402)

Iran's unique geographical position, as a crossroad between various Eastern and Western civilizations, has made it a significant land with important routes throughout different historical periods. Caravanserais, which some of them are registered in the UNESCO list of World Heritage, are an important heritage of historic roads. In the route of the Khorasan or Eastern highway, a branch is located in the north of Khorasan. The historical route from Jorjan to Nishapur has been a point of reference since the 4th to 9th centuries. Only a few caravanserais in Iran remain from before the Safavid period. Since chain caravanserais were likely built simultaneously due to their continuous function of providing shelter for travelers, their chain analysis holds a special position in the studies of architectural patterns. In this research, firstly, using interpretive-historical methods, the route, resting places, and caravanserais from the 4th century onwards were identified. In the next step, relying on the theory of Space Syntax and the resulting justified graphs, the spatial relations of these caravanserais were analyzed, and the governing patterns of these relations were interpreted using logical reasoning methods. The findings indicate that the entrance point to the buildings is unique and serves as the main gateway. Hashti or octagonal vestibule serves as a pivotal communication space in the intermediate area. The stable has access through Hashti, and the tower has access through the stable. Hashti is connected to the entrance courtyard. The rooms are arranged around the courtyard, with the iwan (semi-open vaulted hall in the middle of each side of the rectangular courtyard) serving as the pivotal space between the rooms and the courtyard. The distinguishing feature of the buildings is the presence of additional sections such as the stable and their method of connection to Hashti. Thus, while following a unified pattern, the layout of these buildings is unique for each structure, with considerations such as the number of rooms, Hashti, and stable shape.

The gap between the findings of environment-behavior studies and the actual design is a fact being observed by many professionalsnowadays. This research is an attempt to bring them closer to application by establishing a relationship between the qualitative features of the environment and the quantitative components of design. The case study is the organic context of Chizar neighborhood in Tehran. The typical qualitative methods of data collection in behavior sciences (observation and questionnaires) and the quantitative, software-assisted method of space syntax were used. Since the software analysis was done based on the location of houses, the result shows the existence of a relationship between residents’ behavior and their evaluation of the environmental characteristics of the neighborhood and the location-based syntactic components of their houses. Based on this survey, the neighborhood has extensive social interactions, active behavioral settings, and adequateenvironmental affordances. The correlation table between the components of space syntax as a variable group and the results of the questionnaire as another group including social interactions, behavioral settings, and environmental affordancespresents the main result of this study. This table shows that the results of the survey are strongly correlated with global integration, local integration, global mean depth, local total depth, connectivity, global choice, local choice, and local RA. These components can be used effectively in the study and design phasesof other similar neighborhoods or be used in the evaluation of pre-designs. The research also yields more results due to its holistic and exploratory nature. Some of the results that are inconsistent with those of previous studies, such as the negative correlation between integration and walking and the positive correlation of mean depth with walking and safetyhighlight the need for additionalresearch.

Azerbaijan,with a long history of culture and art,is one of the regions in Iranthat meritsarchitectural study. For this purpose, we should not limit our study to the present-day borders of Azerbaijan.Instead,it is important to note that in the not-so-distant past, there wasan exchange of artistic and architecturalideas, motivations, and craftspersons with its neighboring lands including Aran (Republic of Azerbaijan). In the realmof Islamic architecture, the physicality of mosquesholds a distinctive position because of their correspondence toconsistentbehavioral patterns. Therefore,a typological study can be carried outnot inside political boundaries but within the extent of cultural boundaries. The ultimate purpose of this research is to reach a typology of mosques of Tabriz and Baku built during the Qajar era according to their physical characteristics. For this purpose, the descriptive-analytical research method was used and data collection was done by library research and field studies. In this article, a total of 28 historical mosques and their important features in both citiesareintroduced, and next,they are classified according to these features and the composition of their physical elements.The characteristics of each typology are discussed next. The mosques in these areas can be classified into three types: dome-chamber mosques, dome-chamber and colonnaded mosques, and hypostylemosques. The hypostyle type can only be foundin Azerbaijan, while the other two typescan be found in both regions.

Vertical and horizontal transportation of building materials has always been a major challenge in historical construction. Architects and engineers of ancient civilizations developed simple yetpractical solutions for these challenges.While material transport has been addressed in the field of historical building technology, no definite conclusion has been reached regarding the equipment and methods for the entire process from extraction to execution. Among ancient civilizations, the Achaemenid Empire stands out as a remarkable example, with Persepolis representing its most significant and exquisite engineering and artistic achievement. Constructing monumental buildings during that era posed unique challenges which were addressed ingeniously and effectively, particularly regarding the vertical and horizontal transportation of heavy, large blocks of stone over long distances from quarries to construction sites. This research delves into the logistics strategies employed by the Achaemenids in the construction of Persepolis. The authors first examine the methods employed by pre-Achaemenidor contemporaneous civilizations, which,based on historical evidence, influenced the formation of Achaemenid architectural culture. Based on this analysis, the authors hypothesize about the methods employed by the Achaemenids. The hypotheses are evaluatedby analyzing ancient evidence, field research, and geographic data within the field of historical building technology. The research reveals that the Achaemenids employed a combination of simple machines and sledgesfor the ground transportation ofloads. Water was not a challenging obstacle for builders, as they used rafts or temporary bridges for the transportation of loads. In steep slopes, they likely modified the natural train or employed limited terraces. For vertical transportation, they most likely used a combination of compound pulleys and ropes in the form of early cranes

The formal advisory bodies of the World Heritage Committee (ICOMOS and IUCN) evaluate all the nominations of properties for inscription on the World Heritage List. These evaluations help the World Heritage Committee to decide which properties to inscribe on the world heritage list. However, it is the World Heritage Committee that makes the final decision, which can be contrary to the recommendations of the advisory bodies. Therefore, there may be many properties on the list that have not necessarily been approved by the advisory bodies. The review and technical evaluations carried out by the advisory bodies can reveal deficiencies in the nomination dossiers, which may be overshadowed by the committee’s decisions. Nevertheless, understanding the approach of these bodies and their evaluation methods can be taken into consideration in the preparation of nomination files and avoid heavy costs in the process. The following research offers a review of the Iranian cultural and natural property nominations for inscription on the World Heritage List and analyzes the issues and deficiencies of these nomination files through the lens of the advisory bodies. To carry out this research, all the evaluation reports of the advisory bodies regarding Iran’s World Heritage nomination dossiers have been analyzed using qualitative content analysis. This study found that the main focus ofICOMOS lies on the “justification” section, while IUCN mostly concentrates on “justification” and “management” sections. The review also shows that the main challenges in the evaluation stage are due to a lack of mutual understanding between the nominating State Party and the advisory bodies. In general, the advisory bodies consider the most important issues in Iran’s WH nomination dossiers to be the information provided in the sections of justification (Outstanding Universal Values), conservation, and comparative analysis.

Seh-Gonbad tomb tower is a Seljuq monument in Iran that despite its peculiar features has received littlescholarly attention. Geometric decorations, Kufic inscriptions, along other architectural features have made this tower one of the significant funerary examples of sixth-century architecture. While the rich decorations and inscriptions of this building have been studied earlier, there is little information regarding its architectural characteristics. Given that some of the architectural elements of tomb towers such as this have changed over the years due to neglect, the question in this research is: What were the architectural characteristics of the exterior dome of this tomb tower? The aim of thispaper is to investigate the physical structure of the Seh-Gonbad, focusing on its formal, geometric, and proportional features in order to reconstruct the destroyed part of the building (thedome). Field and library research were used in this paper as well as acomparative analysis with contemporaneous andsimilar examples. Through comparative analysis with other tomb towers in the region,the research sheds new light on the geometric proportions of the Seh-Gonbad which introduces a novel geometric system in these monuments and theirexterior features. Finally, it is concluded that based on physical transformations in the Seh-Gonbad tower over time and its architectural and geometric similarities with parallel examples, this building had an external dome in the past,most likely conical or pyramidal in shape.

Architecture in Shushtarhas evolved as the result of centuries of living experience in a region with a hot and semi-arid climate, representing a brilliant climate-responsive approach. A most valuable architectural strategy in this city is a type of brickwork (khavun-chini) which not only enhances the beauty ofthe structures but also caters to the climatic needs.The main objective of this research is to identify, document, and analyze the patterns and projection elevations of the khavunbrickwork in Shushtar. Using quantitative and descriptive-analytical approaches, 70 patterns from the facades of historical buildings in Shushtar, particularly from the decorative elements of main entrances and courtyard walls, mostly attributed to the late Qajar and early Pahlavi periods,were studied. These patterns were documented through field studies in the historical fabric of the city as well as library research. Based on the obtained images, their patterns were drawn using AutoCAD software, and the collected data were uploaded to Excel to create analytical diagrams and perform quantitative analyses.According to the results, the average area of these patterns was found to be 0.45 square meters. Furthermore, the constituent elements of the khavunbrickworkwere introduced, and the role of each component in shaping each pattern was determined. The elevation of each pattern projectionwas calculated, and ultimately, the average elevation of the patterns was found to be approximately 35%. With the help of the results of this research, the conservation and reconstruction process of the khavunbrickworkscan be facilitated and shortened. Since the calculation and analysis of their constituent elementsare provided in this study, the amount of materials needed to produce each pattern can be calculated by referring to the tables in this article. Since the extent of the projection is a significant variable in the size of the shadow produced by that brickwork, the available data can also be utilized in assessingthe thermal efficiency and value of any brickwork.

The present study examines a wide range of material components of agro-pastoralist communities in late antique Iran who inhabited an area of 250 thousand hectares in the southwest of Fars province. The components include residential buildings, walls, terraces, qanats, unidentified structures, and pottery sherds that exhibit characteristics of the late antiquity era. The structure of these componentsas well as climatic variables during the late antiquity era provide compelling evidence that the componentswere utilized by mobile societies who inhabited the regionseasonally. Furthermore, the architectural structures and seasonal settlements and their direct relationship to pastures and water-control systemsfor dry farming on steep slopes serve as additional proof of the social structure and economic approach (pastoral/agricultural) of the intended society. The primary goal and objective of this study are, respectively, to ascertain the socio-economic characteristics of agro-pastoralist societies in late antiquity, and explore their capacity to establish economic, social, and political institutions. The need for this research comes from the fact that most archaeological studieson this period focus on evidence from urban and rural settlements. Thus, analyzing data through GIS to interpret the systems of settlements and the correlation between material components and environmental behavior can provide a deeper understanding of the socio-economic structures of late antiquity for scholars of this field. The results of the study indicatethat the agro-pastoralist societies of this era had attained a level of complexity in their socio-economic systems and played a significant role in the broader socio-economic framework.

In the field of environment and behavior, the spatial organization of houses and the way of life have always had a mutual relationship, i.e., changes in the spatial organization of houses impact the way of life of residents. The way of lifeis directly related to cultural practices, daily activities, and norms of the residents, whose changes can be observed and explored.It is possible to get a correct understanding of the reasons behind the formation of different residential interior spaces and changes in their organizationby studying the ways of life. In order to achieve this goal, examples of contemporary houses with courtyards in Ilamwere selected dating from 1350 to 1390 ASwhich were grouped according to their construction decades.They allhad two important features:they were not distinctive but common buildings in the city, and they allowedfor studying resident behavior inside houses. The samples were coded from A1 to E4 according to theirconstruction decade and to the location of the courtyardrelative to the building. This case study uses a mixed methodinterpretive and comparative approach using library research, observation, and classification of data obtained from interviews with residents regarding behavior and way of life analyzed with MAXQDA software. The results show changes in the spatial organization of courtyardhouses in Ilam. These changes are not only related to the location of the courtyard relative to the building mass but also related to the construction decade of the house,which can be explained according to the changes in cultural practices and way of life. According to this research, these changes regard the number of spaces, their names, their position in the plan, as well as the type and number of activities in each space during different decades (50s to the 90s). Due to the rich cultural hospitality of the native Kurdish people, the assignment of the best part of the house to the reception area is still observed in the way of life of the residents. The courtyard is one of the spaces that has undergone reduced usage and furniture change, as explained in the discussions.

The preservation-oriented design of new structures in historical fabricsis a matter of debate between preservationists and architects. Therefore, many research studies are aimed at exploring different design approaches and their implications, resulting in explicit or implicit recommendations for design. Therefore, it is important to review and analyze them, as well as the international documents and other national and regional design guidelines— a study that has not been done to date. Accordingly, this research aims to classify the proposed recommendations in the form of design approaches. For this purpose, the required data in related research studieswere collected and coded separately based on the theme and structure of each approach into three levels: point of view, strategy, and method. Then, they were described with the help of a comparative study. The results show thatin the studies of Groat (1985) and Sotoudeh and Wan Abdullah (2012) at the level of point of view, the historical character of the fabric is preferable to its urban character. Therefore, it is recommended to avoid changes in the level of strategy and practice compatibilityat the level of method. This is while other studies emphasize both the historical and urban characters, the difference being that in the studies of Oers (2010), Bianca (2010), Diski (2012), Adam (2010), and Duch (2010), the reference frame is tradition, while in other studies it is modernity. Influenced by the reference point of view, Oers, Bianca, Diski, Adam, and Duch recommend the management of change through traditional architectural and urban planning patterns, whileother studies influenced by the modern point of viewrecommend the management of change by referring to the characteristics of the historical context with the aim of compatibility.

Authenticity and integrity are key concepts in communicatingthe values and better understanding of an artifact/site. The ambiguity in the definition of these concepts regardingarchitectural heritage has posed challenges to their effective application. Throughout history, the concepts of authenticity and integrity were not major concerns for builders, as the materials, and more importantly, techniques remainedlargely unchanged for centuries; while today, they are essential criteria for the conservation and reuse of historical monuments.The concepts of authenticity and integrityare closely related to each other, butslightly different. There is more transparency about the authenticity of architectural heritage in expertanalyses and international documents, while there is a kind of gap in the precise definition of integrity. The present study explores the role and relation of authenticity and integrity and their application in the process of architectural heritage conservation. Using a qualitative method and a strategy of content analysis and logical reasoning,initially,international documents and expert analyses are reviewed and the two concepts are defined and their criteria introducedwithin the context of architectural heritage. After summarizing the findings, in the second stage, the relationship of authenticity and integrity is examined from various perspectives, and several approaches are presented fortheir implementation. Given the unique characteristics of any architectural heritage property, the assessment of authenticity and integrity is proposedwithin a comprehensive framework of seven design factors: materials, construction techniques, context, function, traditions and intangible aspects, and the spirit of place.

Windcatchersare architectural/engineering elements in the vernacular architecture of hot and arid cities of Iran. Nowadays, with the advancement of technology and due to lifestyle changesas well as the increase of airborne dust in the region, windcatchers have lost their former significance in these areas and natives have turned to using conventional cooling systems such as water and gas air conditioners. In this article, Khousf city and Khour village of Birjand district were selected as samples from the hot and dry climate in the east of Iran. In this paper, the two towns are introducedand briefly reviewedregarding urban texture, vernacular houses, and architecture of one-way windcatchers and their physical structure. The main objective of the study is to developa typology for the regionalwindcatchers by examining the placement of windcatchers in the plan and section of the building, the plan and elevation of awindcatcher, and the relationship between the windcatcher room and other spaces. The sample windcatcherswere selected for this studywith the help of existing documents and field observations, based on building integrity,accessibility to the building and itswindcatchers, and research limitations. It is intended thatavariety of regional windcatchers be included in the samples. The research method is logical analysis and description with a qualitative approach. The data acquisition method is based on library research, observation, and accurate field measurements. This study identifies three types of one-way windcatchers in the region, which are classified as khol, sharafeh and bad-gir in the local dialect. The type and number of windcatchersto be built in certain places of the house weredecided according to ease of construction, cost, and ventilation power. Finally, based on the information obtained in this study and the information gaps in research related toeastern Iran, recommendations for future research are presented.