فصلنامه پژوهش های تاریخی
سال سیزدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 49، بهار 1400)

The emergence of various intellectual ideas in the Islamic world after the death of the Prophet (PBUH) until today has posed the challenge of the convergence of the Ummah. The period of the Imamate of Imam Javad (AS) (825-842 AD) was also the season of prosperity, internal revolts, and foreign aggression against the Islamic Caliphate. The suspicious activities of these groups threatened religion. One of the threats was the division of the Ummah. The present study, by asking what the components of convergence from the perspective of Imam Javad (AS) are, seeks to identify these components in situations such as debates, confrontation with caliphs, and currents of thought. His teachings were manifested in the form of components of correcting theological beliefs with respect, lack of tension in political relations, good manners, adherence to the Holy Qur'an and tradition, and innocence from Islamic extremism. The study hypothesizes that Imam Javad (AS) considers the roots of divergence in not understanding the truth of religion, hegemony, and separatist tendencies. Imam's actions in the direction of convergence have been in the form of corrective measures in interaction with different currents, removing doubts, and avoiding any divergent action towards the unity of the Ummah.

The political situation of the Islamic society changed after revealing the nature of Bani Abbas especially with Mansour’s actions (136-158 AH) and the foundations of the Abbasid caliphate. The situation was not in accordance with the Imamate doctrine. Therefore, contrary to previous claims, the Abbasid caliphs, the same as Umayyads, were forced to pursue two strategic principles in confrontation with the doctrine of the Imamate. The first was making doubt in the doctrine of Imamate and the second was creating deviant sects to keep these sects busy with each other and diverging among Shiites. In such an atmosphere, Imam Javad (AS), who was supposed to protect the doctrine of Imamate and unite the Ummah, became Imam at an early age. The young age of the Imam was a problem for the public of Shiites. But considering the influence of gentlefolks in the society and their impact on the positions of the masses, the Imam, in the face of doubts created by gentlefolks, removed doubts and explained the doctrine of Imamate. This study seeks to provide a model for Islamic convergence by searching the lifestyle of Imam Javad (AS) in situations such as debates, confrontation with caliphs, and currents of thought.Imam Javad (AS) debates with Mutazilite and Sunni elders were held in the form of theological and jurisprudence subjects. Subjects such as divorce a woman, hunting in the shrine (Masjed Al-haram), the quality of becoming halal and haram for a woman several times a day, exaggerated virtues about sheikhs, signs of Imamate, issues related to Monotheism, cutting off the hand of a thief and punishing bandits. Caliphs held debates intending to challenge the knowledge and position of Imam Javad (AS) in the society and create doubts among Shiites about the legitimacy of their Imam. This seemingly threat, of course, was an opportunity for the Imam to prove his knowledge and legitimacy. Beyond these debates, in addition to dispelling doubts and enlightening thoughts about Islamic teachings in the field of Monotheism, Prophecy, Imamate, and the Qur'an, he sought to create convergence, because he explained and corrected some Sunni beliefs without any insults, humiliation, or bringing religious sensitivities.

The method of the present study is descriptive-analytical with reference to historical, hadith, and rijali books.

Imam Javad (AS) pursued a strategic plan to create and strengthen convergence through debates, confrontations with caliphs, and currents of thought. He considered the divergence of the Ummah as a result of mutual disrespect for beliefs, sanctities, and incitement of religious feelings and stressed the necessity of respect and courtesy. This religious courtesy leads to preserving the dignity of the Islamic society, its immunity from insults, avoiding the field of discord, and leading to convergence. Although the Imam claimed an appointed leadership (by Prophet Mohammad) over the Muslim Ummah, according to the requirements of the time in preserving the Islamic government, he did not take any divergent action towards the caliphate and did not use the currents and forces seeking independence for politic aims.According to the teachings of Imam Javad (AS), wise behavior and best scientific debate along with softness, love, and avoidance of harsh words, even towards those who hated him, lead to convergence. He emphasized the unity of Muslims based on the two original sources that are Qur'an and Sunnah (Prophet's lifestyle) and the necessity to follow its instructions. In the face of the phenomenon of Islamic extremism, he used two methods of enlightenment and decisive approaches. The Enlightenment method included guiding and responding to doubts. The decisive approach included cases such as cursing and giving murder sentences. The Imam tried to guide and retrain the teachings of religion through enlightenment. Since extremist Shiites paved the way for the enemies to slander and oppose the Shiites, exposing, cursing, and finally issuing a murder statement for some of them was the agendum. He eliminated misunderstandings and provided convergence by clarifying the nature of extremist Shiites and declaring the illegitimacy of them. The Imam also tried to reject the exaggerated beliefs of the Sunnis without stimulating religious sensitivities. He refuted these beliefs logically with convincing citations. Therefore, the divergent behaviors of Islamic currents are due to the lack of proper understanding of the nature of religion and manners of the Innocents (AS). Thus, the life of the Imams (AS) can play an effective role in creating Islamic convergence.

With the coming to power of Reza Shah, the plans of the Pahlavi government to establish security, centralism, reform, progress, and new order came into conflict with Illyrian life. One of the Pahlavi government’s plans for the tribes was settlement policy, an issue of which the Qashqai tribe was no exception. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the settlement policy of the Qashqai tribe by the First Pahlavi government. In the political-economic relations of the Qashqai tribe with the first Pahlavi government, the question is: what were the purposes of the settlement program in the Qashqai tribe and how was it implemented? And what was the result of their settlement? Based on this issue, this study seeks to answer two questions: how was the housing policy implemented in the Qashqai tribe? And What were the consequences of the settlement policy in the Qashqai tribe?

Considering the goals of Reza Shah and his entourage in establishing security, centralism, reforms, and new order, the first Pahlavi state in the history of Iran was the first government that tried to abolish nomadism and settle tribes, and the Qashqai tribe was no exception. The plans of the first Pahlavi government towards the tribes include the policy of disarmament, deprivation of power from the heads of the tribes, the policy of decentralization and culturalization, and the strategy of settlement of the tribes. In the relations of the Qashqai tribe with Reza Shah, there were three stages of cooperation, confrontation, and war. The first Pahlavi government sought to infiltrate and disintegrate the Qashqai tribe, and the Qashqai sought to preserve its existence and identity. In the relations of the Qashqai tribe with the first Pahlavi government, one of the tribal policies of the government was the settlement program, which was implemented in the 1310s AH (1931-1932s). Therefore, since no independent research has been done on the settlement of the Qashqai tribe, the present study seeks to determine the settlement policy of the Qashqai tribe and its failure.

This research was conducted using the historical research method and compiling and writing descriptive-analytical based on the documents of the Documents Organization and the National Library of the Islamic Republic of Iran) NLAI ( with the origin of Fars province and supplementing the library resources. 

The settlement of the Qashqai tribe, which was carried out in the 1310s (1931-1932s) by the Qashqai military government and the Persian settlement administration, aimed at establishing security, taxation, and civilizing the Qashqai community. The construction of the Qashqai tribe was based on the two pillars of settlement and livestock management. The Persian Housing Authority, with the help of the military, settled Qashqai families in their summer and winter areas based on the settlement system. In this process, all the titles and positions of the tribes became obsolete and only the position of Kadkhoda was recognized. By giving letters of commitment, Kadkhoda was obliged to resettle the families under his care and prevented them from moving, and committed them to construction and to engage in agriculture. Simultaneously, with the settlement of the tribe, in order to feed thousands of cattle and livestock, shepherding licenses were issued to the herdsmen, which was the main place for controlling licenses and taxation in the Strait of Beida.Although the settlement of the Qashqai tribe and other sub-tribes were the right goals for centralism, progress, and modernization of Iran, in practice, the settlement of the Qashqai tribe was a hasty policy without considering the socio-economic conditions of the tribal society. The settlement of the Qashqai tribe resulted in defeats with the expulsion of Reza Shah from Iran. The most important reason for this defeat was the economic blow to the Qashqais, because the settlement caused the loss of a large part of their livestock, while with their settlement, agriculture was not very economical. Also, living in sheds and crypts that did not resemble the building, bribery, and coercion by military and government officials, short-living time and maintaining tribal life, and preserving tribal identity, the good fortune of the family of Solat al-Dawla Qashqai Other were among factors causing this failure.

Assessment of the role of pearls in recognizing some historical and traditional concepts governing the social and economic relations of inhabitants around the Persian Gulf, especially its central and southern coasts, is of great significance due to their special position for explaining the historical events and contexts of the Persian Gulf Region Administration. Pearl has been defined as an important commodity in the region's traditional economy, prompting researchers to explore its various social, economic, and political dimensions. Among the important historical backgrounds, recognizing and redefining how to manage this vast trade in local and regional dimensions and continuing to find traces of Iranian bureaucracy were the focus of this particular case study. With its analytical approach and based on some historical evidence, this article sought to answer the fundamental question of what the trace of Iranian bureaucracy in this process was given the mechanism of pearl fishing and trading. The prevailing premise was that bureaucracy had indirectly contributed to fishing management and regulation of pearl-fishing grounds.

Traditionally and historically, the southern coastline of the Persian Gulf, along with the southern coast of Iran, was based on geographical proximity, common religion and economic interests, and political and social ties. In the meantime, trade interactions, especially participation in trading for goods and fisheries, were more important. In the context of interactions for gaining economic benefits from the sea, pearl fishing and trading were of particular significance due to the role of different strata in gaining broad financial benefits. This could be the basis for doing a historical analysis on the role of pearl fishing and trading in creating a kind of collective participation and historical interaction between coastal residents on both sides of the Persian Gulf. Interactions that had existed since ancient times and throughout the history of the Islamic era were reinforced by the strengthening of religious ties between Iranians and Arabs and continued until the Qajar period. Since pearl fishing was the most important platform for economic activities of the coastal residents, who were scattered along the southern shores of the Persian Gulf and had no other livelihoods, pearl fishing and trading were the major and central platform for their roles in the local Persian Gulf economy. This presence was more prominent in the major pearl sites in the region, namely around Bahrain, east and west of Qatar Peninsula, and around the islands of Abu Dhabi. Understanding the nature of this interaction, the important role of Iranian captains and merchants in this business, and the need for convergence and coordination among coastal residents revealed the role of their common interests in creating this ancient traditional system and a better communication for strengthening those interests. Although the evolution of the international system and development of the trade and security systems by securing British Naval Power and preserving the Indian Empire changed the long-standing relations and local traditions in the Persian Gulf, pearl fishing and trading so well dominated over the region due to its complexity and special characteristics. It was less affected by the conditions of the new era and was able to maintain its existence until the 1930s. Go on with your life. Nevertheless, the first half of the 19th century …AD/13 AH. The pattern of beach-dwelling relations with the presence of pearl fisheries on the southeast coast was the same as the traditional patterns. Meanwhile, the southeastern shores of the Persian Gulf were the most important pearl-fishing grounds in the entire Indian Ocean basin and an important center of mass gathering and collective participation of coastal residents throughout the ports and islands of the Persian Gulf. Meanwhile, despite the historical importance of the principles of interaction and participation in the coastal residents’ social lives, the major issue for Iranian and Arab scholars in the present era was to address the qualities and scopes of Iranian and Arab governments’ influences and powers in Persian Gulf ports and islands. Hence, less attention was paid to the issue of interaction and participation of both groups in the social and economic contexts. Although a brief look at the historical and human geography and climate on the shores of the Persian Gulf revealed the concentration of human settlements on the northern shores (present-day coasts of Iran) and the dominance of Iranian elements on the sea. The social and economic lives on the ports and islands were neglected. Participation continued from the distant past to the domination of modern security systems in the 14th century AH/20 AD. Therefore, the developments that occurred during the last two centuries necessitated recognition of some historical foundations of connections between the coastal and maritime areas on both sides of the Persian Gulf. Due to the economic and communication significance of this commercial region, pearls were of historical importance among the commercial goods in the Persian Gulf as they had a special role in the coastal residents’ livelihood and local economy. Pearl was known as a locally produced commodity and unlike other important transit commodities, such as spices, horses, textiles, nuts, etc., it was not merely a transit commodity, while it belonged to the coastal areas and the coastal people permanently participated in catching and processing it. The difference between pearl and other important local commodities like salt was in its reliance on fishing techniques and complexity and trading process, as well as its necessities. Knowledge and experience, along with the financial resources derived from the pearl trade, provided a balance for coastal residents against foreign interference. Moreover, the deep connection of pearls with all aspects of local people’s social lives and the scope of activities related to it were in such a way that even oil, despite its economic importance beyond pearls, was not as a cultural activity linked to the sea people’s lives as pearls, which created closeness. However, the most important issue in this regard was the complexity of how Iranians were related to pearl fishing and trading in the Persian Gulf. Scattered historical references to pearl fishing and trading were the basis for understanding some important aspects of the interactions between the two shores. In addition to the book "Al-Magha's Al-Laali and Minar Al-Laali" (Sadid al-Saltanah Kababi (1371), which was published under the Persian name of "Northern Lands ..." and whose main title and contents had brief references to fishing and trading in the Persian Gulf region, a short book on the subject of pearls entitled "Al-Manas fi Ahwal al-Ghousva al-Al-Wass" by Sadid al-Saltanah Kababi (1308) was available. Also, there was a collection of documents related to pearl fishing in the Persian Gulf. This four-volume collection of documents from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century contained statistics and reports that showed the role of pearls in coastal people’s livelihoods. Among the official documents and reports of the British agency in the Persian Gulf, which were in the form of several independent collections, the detailed collection of Saldanha and Lorimer was included as well.

Through historical and analytical methods and based on library studies, this article tried to answer the basic question of what role this commodity played in creating interaction and convergence among the coastal residents of the Persian Gulf according to the mechanism of pearl fishing and trading. The prevailing assumption was that the process of attending fishing grounds and the rules and regulations governing fishing culture played an important role in creating convergence and interaction among coastal residents with regard to the importance of pearl fishing and trading, as well as researchers' emphasis on the existence of rules and traditional customs.

Obtaining financial benefits for political centers on the northern shores of the Persian Gulf provided an explanation to the importance of this industry and trade. A closer look at the events revealed that the central role of pearl industry in the inhabitants’ lives and livelihoods on the southern coasts had not been studied by researchers despite the existence of some references in the sources, which could sufficiently encourage them to perform explanatory research in these areas. The historical nature of coastal dwellers’ connection and interactions based on the culture and economy of pearls should be carefully studied as one of the most original and fundamental foundations of the history of the Persian Gulf region. Pearls had a special place in the local economy of the southern coasts of the Persian Gulf due to their historical importance, so much so that in official reports, they were mentioned as the strength of the scattered settlements on the southern coasts. In the first Qajar era, the basis of interactions between both sides of the Persian Gulf was a continuation of the historical trading traditions in the form of the presence of fishing fleets and residents in pearl fisheries in Iranian ports. In the field of pearl trading, which was considered to be the most important livelihood activity of dwellers on the southern shores of the Persian Gulf, an unwritten and, of course, precise mechanism, which Lorimer considered a Sassanid tradition, made the basis for creating order between thousands of boats and ships. These traditions were seen in the spatial and temporal divisions of fishermen's groups and timing of the presence of large and small ships, merchants, etc., expressing common interests and the necessity of establishing a system of customs on both sides of the northern and southern coasts. This did the right thing even without a direct supervision in the Qajar period, which was the result of the emergence of new European mechanisms that remained strong until the middle of the 14th century AH/20 AD. Despite the weakness and decline of the Qajar ruling system, this continuous presence showed that local traditions were a key factor in preserving the region's historical identity by strengthening the interaction between coastal residents even in the absence of direct supervision of the central government. These traditions reflected an important part of the coastal inhabitants’ economic and social lives.

The Azafids were one of the most famous families of jurists and scholars in the city of Ceuta in the Islamic period. They were able to rule this city often semi-independently during the 7th to 8th centuries AH and also rule over several other cities in some other periods.  Due to their scientific and religious statuses, they were respected by the people, while being influential in the social history of Maghrib and Andalusia. Abu al-Abbas Azafi, the great ancestor of this family, wrote the famous book, Al-ddur Al-Monazzam fi Mawlid Al-Nabi Al-Moazzam, which influenced on celebration of Prophet Muhammad’s birthday in this area.  Only 5 members of this family came to power and the other members became famous as scholars and poets in their times.  In this article, the author intended to identify the members of this family based on a library research and via the description and analysis of the contents of the related sources, while answering the two questions of what factors were effective in bringing these jurists to power and finally losing power and what their scientific and social statuses were. It seemed that the scientific-religious position and influence of the Azafids in the political turmoil of that period in Morocco and Andalusia led to their ruling, but this turmoil also removed their authority, as well as their activities from the scene of power.

One of the most important and influential periods in the history of Morocco and Andalusia was the defeat of Muhammad Nasser in1211  A.D. The battle of Las Navas de Tolosa” in Arab history was known as the battle of Al-Iqab against Alfonso VIII of Castile. After that, the Almohads did not regain their former power in Maghreb and Andalusia. In the meantime, some Maghreb cities like Ceuta, which served as a gateway between Maghreb and southern Andalusia, were exposed to Christian attacks and rivalry between the Maghreb and Andalusian rulers. Therefore, they decided to accept a better alternative to Almohad movement to maintain security. These new rulers made the Hafsid dynasty. The Hafsids chose a governor, whose name was Ibn Abi Khalid, for Ceuta. However, his cruel and unjust behavior towards the people of Ceuta caused them to rise up under the leadership of a famous jurist named Abul-Qâsem Azfi, who was able to form a government in 1249 A.D. Then, 5 members of this family, who were all jurists and scholars, came to power. During their sovereignties, they were associated with the great governments of Morocco and Andalusia, such as the Marinids and Nasrids, while being even forced to rule under their authorities. Finally, rivalry with the Seghellid family in Ceuta and lack of the Marinids’ support for the Azfi family caused them to lose their power forever. 

By using a library method with a historical-analytical approach, this research tried to identify the Azafids family members and determine their scientific and social statuses. 

Ceuta, which was the gateway to Morocco and Andalusia, attracted the attention of the powerful governments of the region, such as those of the Almohads, Marinids, and Nasrids, to be occupied by them. In the meantime, the Azafids used their scientific and religious influences and prestige among the people of Ceuta and seized power. The Azafids voluntarily or compulsorily joined one of these governments in each period in order to have a powerful supporter or maintain their power and sovereignty. Despite all the efforts of the Azafids’ rulers to maintain their sovereignty, the conflicts and family rivalries in Ceuta ended with Sultan Abu Saeed Marini’s support. However, their names remained in history because most of the members of this family were famous in poetry, jurisprudence, medicine, and even politics in Morocco and Andalusia for many years. They presented many works, the most important of which was the work of Abu al-Abbas Ahmad called the Al-ddur Al-Monazzam fi Mawlid Al-Nabi Al-Moazzam. In his book, he emphasized that holding religious celebrations, especially that of the Holy Prophet’s birthday, was very important and that Muslims were better to honor their Prophet’s status in this way. In fact, this book left a great celebration for the birthday of the Prophet of Islam after his death as a memorial, especially during the reign of the Marines in Maghreb and Andalusia, something that people did not care about until the writing of this book.

Jafar Qoli khan Donboli was one of the influential members of the Donboli dynasty in the scene of political developments in Azerbaijan and the Caucasus during the Qajar period. In the events following the assassination of his father, Ahmad Khan, he played an important role in consolidating the rule of his brother, Hussein Khan, and restoring the glory of the Donboli dynasty. But his approach to relations with the Qajar government was unstable. Contrary to the practice of obeying the rule of Aqa Mohammad Khan, during the reign of Fath Ali Shah, in order to challenge his authority in Azerbaijan, he tried to open the door to the Ottoman and Russia by adopting the policy of confrontation. In this regard, this study aims to investigate the politics of Otomanism to Russianism in the relations of Jafar Qoli Khan Donboli with the Qajar government. Two questions have been posed in this study: what was Jafar Qoli Khan's relations with the Qajar? And what were the influential factors in his inclination towards the Ottoman and Russian? The results of the study showed that he revolted against the Qajar in order to counter the policy of integrating with the central power and maintaining the Donboli dynasty. Therefore, after failing in a military confrontation with the Qajar and the lack of support from the Ottoman, he turned to that government, observing the power of the Russians.

The Donboli family was one of the local families in Azerbaijan and the city of Khoy was their main base. The authority of this dynasty reached its peak during Ahmad Khan due to the weakness of Zandid's government. However, this family suffered from some internal conflicts. The Qajar government used this weakness to exercise their sovereignty over them, fomenting internal divisions within the Donboli dynasty, paving the way for their integration into the central power. On the eve of the formation of the Qajar government, Hussein Khan was the head of the Donboli dynasty. Due to the power of the Qajars, he leaned towards the new government of Iran, and through this he achieved the position of Beglerbegi of Azerbaijan. But unlike his brother, Jafar Qoli Khan did not have a stable policy towards the Qajars. In order to take over the rule of the Donboli family and removing his brother in relations with Aqa Mohammad Khan, he followed the procedure of obedience and was able to gain the position of Beglerbegi by attracting the opinion of the ruler of Iran. But the process of accompanying him was changed with the death of Aqa Mohammad Khan, and during the reign of Fath Ali Shah, he adopted the policy of confrontation and started an armed struggle against the Qajars. In order to challenge the authority of the Qajars, he tried to involve them in the internal affairs of Azerbaijan through the policies of Ottomanism and Russification. This study tries to investigate the causes of his relationship with Fath Ali Shah and the emergence of dual behaviors from the politics of interaction to confrontation. The role of peripheral powers in the issue of Jafar Qoli Khan and its effect on relations with the Qajar government and the recognition of his role in the position of Khan Shaki under the supervision of the Russian are other issues presented in this study.

This research has made an attemot to investigate the issue by relying on Russian, Ottoman, and Iranian historiographical documents and using the descriptive-explanatory method. In this research, mainly Russian documents (AkAK) and Ottoman archival documents (bеlgеlеri) have been used. The Russian documents contain reports of Russian, Iranian, Ottoman rulers, and Khans about the developments in the Caucasus and Jafar Qoli Khan's relations with Russian. The Ottoman documents contain information about the correspondence of Khans of Khoy with the Ottoman authorities and reports from the Ottoman pashas about the Jafar Qoli Khan uprising. 

The result of the study showed that the component of hostility formed the basis of Jafar Qoli Khan's relations with the Qajar government. He waged an armed struggle to maintain the local government of Donboli and to oppose the policy of integration of the Qajar and with several unsuccessful revolts. He turned to the Ottoman to achieve his goals. By establishing relations with the border pashas, he tried to make the ground ready for Ottoman authorities to interfere internal affairs of Azerbaijan by obtaining their help and creating unrest in the border areas of the two countries. However, Iran's diplomatic action on the Ottoman and its willingness to adhere to a compromise led to the issuance of a decree entitled Jafar Qoli Khan's on pashas not to support Khan Donboli. His failure to capture the Ottomans caused him to turn to the Russians. The Russians, realizing Khan Donboli's influence in Azerbaijan, considered him as a suitable option to advance their political ambitions in the Caucasus and appointed him as the governor of the Shaki. He became the executor of their policies in the region with the support of the Russians and by suppressing the pro-Iranian insurgency, he provided the ground for Russian influence and consolidation in the Caucasus region.

Preserving territorial integrity is one of the vital ideas of any governments. As the Safavid dynasty took power in Iran, Iran's territorial integrity, which had previously been seriously threatened by domestic and foreign claimants, …. To consolidate their sovereignty, the Safavid rulers needed to define and solidify the elements that highlighted their differences from other countries, while establishing internal unity based on shared characteristics. In their sub-discourses, they introduced their value system, which included Shiism and Iranian nationality with several provinces within their territories, redefined another concept, and presented a way of survival based on other concepts by emphasizing differences in religion, nationality, language, culture, and so on. Accordingly, by employing discourse analysis from Ruth Wodak's perspective and focusing on the two basic notions of "self versus the other" and "survival," the present study aimed to analyze Iran's territorial integrity during this period and examine the features of this discourse.