نشریه مطالعات ایرانی اسلامی
سال دهم شماره 2 (تابستان 1399)

The historical connection between Iran and India and their relations which is based on good neighborliness and friendship is a long-standing connection that may date back to the second millennium BC, the era of Aryan migration.This long-standing bond was fueled and perpetuated by the advent of Islam and its spread through Muslim Arabs and Iranians and through the Persian language.Bilateral relations and the influence of Iranian-Islamic culture on Indians and the spread of Persian language in that land for almost a thousand years, especially as the language of Sharia and culture in social strata and inlaw courts and courts of justice and courts of India, added to the privilege of Iranian culture.Based on the importance of this notion, the present article tries to examine the reputation of Iranian culture and Persian language and literature in India in order to consider some unknown aspects of the spread of Persian languagein India not only among Muslims but also among non-Muslims.Furthermoreit revealsthe profound ties between Iranians and Indians. Then it can be concluded that this language has been a common literary and cultural source and also a factor of closeness and unity and a means of understanding and familiarity between the two nations of Iran and India for a long time.The research results show that from the earliest times, perhaps, the era of Aryan migration, the Indian subcontinent has always been the second home for the Iranians.The influence and spread of Persian language in India is not limited tosome simple prose, on the contrary complicated forms of Persian poemscan also be found all over this land.This language has been the official language of the government and court of this land for more than eight hundred years.This language has had the power and ability to transform the dualistic thinking of Hindu scholars into monotheism and poets from the Brahman classcould compose Persian poetry.Through the influence of this dominant language, Dehlavi, the great poet of Indian style in India, became known as Hafiz of India.Although Amir Khosrow is known as the parrot of India, takes also the title of Saadi of India and Saadi's Islamic and Iranian philosophy and advice can be found in his poems.SaibTabrizipredisposes one of the Indo-Aryan languages, i.e.Urdu with allegory. He has also a huge amount of influence over thethinking, movement, and revolutionary movement and its dynamism in Iqbal's thinking.Any way Indian scholars believe thatthe Indian subcontinent is proud of the influence of Persian language in India, because it shows that the Indian subcontinent have nurtured the Persian language, Persian literature and Iranian culture in many aspects such as architecture, painting, calligraphy, etc., as a kind midwife in its loving arms for many years.Therefore, considering theinfluence of Persian language and literaturein India for a thousand years, these kinds of research is in fact rediscovering the glory of Iran and Iranians.

Description of the contribution of Iranians to world civilization and the process of the spread of Iranian culture all over the world is very important for thecontemporary scholars. The Indian subcontinent has been one of the closest geographical destinations for Iranian immigrants.According to historical sources, the gradual migration of Iranian to the Avadh region in the north of the Indian subcontinent and their initial influence in the court of local rulers as well as their access to the political power began from the first half of the twelfth century AH (1134 AH) and lasted to the late thirteenth century AH (1272 AH). Understanding the Iranian culture and the process of the expansion of the Islamic Iranian civilization is very important for this historical research; therefore, the present article intends to answer these questions with a descriptive and analytical approach: What was the role of Iranian Shiite agents in organizing the political and cultural conditions of the AvadhState?  What strategies have they used to consolidate Iranian-Shiite culture? In order to achieve the purpose of the study, the geographical location and historical conditions of Avadh before the arrival of the Iranians is studied, then the role of Iranian immigrants as the agents of Mughal Emperorsis considered andtheera of monarchy in Avadh under the auspices of the East India Company and also their influence on politics, culture and civilization is discussed. For example their influence on the evolution of Urdu language and architecture is explained.Due to the geographical importance and historical background of this region, Avadh in the north of the Indian subcontinent was considered as a suitable region to be influenced by Iranian and Shiite culture and civilization.Historical studies have shown that the role of Iranian agents was affected  because the active presence and rule of the Iranians in Avadh as the agents and Kings in very synchronize with the weakness of the Mughal dynasty and the growing power of British colonization in the Indian subcontinent.Although the Iranians were able to take advantage of the Mughal's weakness, but there was a great obstacle called Britain, which diminished the influence of the Iranian agents on the culture and civilization of Avadh. British agents confronted the Shiite Iranians by any means, including rumors, accusations, slanders andespionage.Finally, Iranian Agents were able to organize the political situation of the Avadhstateand they could also take an important step to stabilize the situation by suppressing internal riots, due to the weakness of the Mughal government, military and political experience, intelligence and courage, as well as loyal companions.Another result of this study is that the beginning of the Avadhmonarchy was associated with the domination of the East India Company over the Avadh kings. Then, political and military weakness gradually overwhelmed the Avadh government and the British came to dominate the land. It can be concluded that the influence of Iranian agents on the cultural manifestations of Avadhwasdue to their Shiite beliefs and their adherence to the religious customs and had religious aspect. That is why it concludes the construction of Imambareh and Hosseiniyah, glorious Muharram mourning, establishment of seminaries and strengthening of the authority of religious leaders.Butfor the Iranian agents science, art, architecture and the creation of various buildings and roads was also of great importance; so that Lucknow was chosen as the capital after Faizabad and gained more glory than Delhi.Also, due to the Iranian descent of the Nawabs and kings of Avadh, despite the development and growth of Urdu, Persian language and literature still survived and the writing of books in this ancient language continued because of the support of the rulers of Avadh.Despite existing obstacles such as the influence of the East India Company, it can be claimed that, the presence of Iranian agents in the Avadhstateleads to the stabilization of the political system of the Avadh government and the expansion of Shiite thought and the development and promotion of Iranian and Shiite cultural manifestations and examples, strengthening of the political system,as well as the campaign against enemy Aliens.

Oriental studies are considered as a collection of studies and researches of scientists or institutes in western countries on various issues and notions about the orient. Iranian studies, as a branch of oriental studies, can be considered as a collection of regular and scientific studies that deal with various aspects of Iranian civilization, culture and history. This article deals with the formation and application of the field of Iranian studies in the west and in Iran. The main question is that how was the field of Iranian studies formed and applied in the west and in Iran?In this paper, based on descriptive and explanatory methods, the evolution of Iranian studies throughout history is examined. Then it will focus on the similarities and differences between oriental studies and Iranian studies. In addition the background of these studies is considered. So some issues such as the definition of main problems considering oriental and Iranian studies are discussed. The author is also going to define either the relations or differences between oriental and Iranian studies. Findings of the research show that it can be said that Oriental studies and Iranian studies as a branch of it was initially formed based on political and economic circumstances. Then after, and especially after the Second World War, some activists in this field criticized the previous approach and tried to study and research this branch of human knowledge in a scientific and objective way with a new approach while rejecting the colonial approach.As a result in the Orient, especially in Iran some changes in research method took place too. Although the field of Iranian studies in Iran was a new field of study but there exist different stages and schools.IranianIranologistsreacted differently towards the western Oriental and Iranian studies. Some of them praised western scholars and some of them criticized them and tried to correct them. In addition, some Iranian Iranologists have tried to strengthen and develop this field of study.They conducted new and accurate studies and they founded scientific and academic institutes for Iranian studies, so that under the influence of this scientific approach, many works in this field have been written. Now under the supervision of the Iranian Studies Foundation and with the training of experts, this field of study in Iran is progressive and growing.Despite this, Iranian studies are considered as a new field of study in Iran. Researchers in this field should continue regular and purposeful scientific activities, regardless of any biased approach, because of the importance and the necessity of the Iranian studies and its scientific achievements. 

The Qarmatian movement was considered as a passionate movement against the Abbasid caliphate which was organized in the third century AH.This movement leads to the establishment of a government which lasted for two hundred years in the east of the Arabian Peninsula.TheQarmatians, who first emerged as a big challenge to the Islamic caliphate, continued to take steps to provoke the negative propaganda of the Abbasids and Sunni fanatics against them. Abu Tahir al-Jannabi was the most powerful emir of Qaramatans. He strengthened the Qaramatian government and took military actions against the Abbasids, but some of his measurements such as; attacking the Hajj caravans, attacking Mecca, removing of the Black Stone ruined the foundations of the legitimacy of Qaramatians and caused their permanent disgrace. This article is descriptive and analytical which is based on historical sources and library research. It seeks to answer these questions: why and how the Qaramatians invaded Mecca and removed the Black Stone and took it with them to Hajar and Al-Ahsa Oasis? What has been the reflection of this incident in historical sources? The study of the original historical sources and texts as well as other research findings reveal numerous evidences and reasons that confirm this hypothesis that the Fatimid caliphs planned the operation and ordered the theft of the Black Stone. These evidences are as follows: Abdallah al-Mahdi Billahapologized to those people whose property was destroyed during the attack on Mecca and was divided among Abu Tahir's troops. Qaramatians did not return the Black Stone in exchange for the exorbitant sums of money. The told: ‘we took it because our Imam ordered us to take it and we will return it when our Imam orders. Meanwhile the title of Amir al-Mu'minin was worthy of a caliph who had the ability to dominate and protect the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, so the invasion of Qarmatians to Hajj caravans and their attack to Mecca and the robbery of the Black Stone could reveal the weakness of Abbasids and the recapture of the Black Stone could reveal the authority of Fatimids. Fatimids sought their domination over these two holy cities, the recitation of sermons in their name, the attainment of the title of Amir al-Mu'minin, the supremacy of the Islamic world and they were able to exercise their religious and worldly dominion over those holy cities for a long time. So we can conclude that Fatimids used Qaramatians as a tool to carry out dangerous plans and actions that could tarnish their image. Michael Jan de Goeje writes: I sincerely believe that the Qarmatians, especially the Qarmatians of Bahrain, acted with the intention of serving a good cause. In conclusion, it should be said that despite all the historical evidences which confirm that the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt, who were the Imams of Qaramatians, intervened and directly ordered the removal of the Black Stone, anyway this un-Islamic act by the Qarmatians not only weakened their legitimacy and ruined their religious principles, but also Muslims condemned this un-Islamic act of Qaramatians. Certainly they are responsible for this action and the blame lies with them. Keywords: Qarmatians, Black Stone, Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi ,Abu Tahir al-Jannabi

Treatise of Jamalieh or Hawraieh is one of the indisputable works of MawlanaYaqubCharkhi which is in fact a commentary on a quatrain attributed to Sheikh Abu Sa'idAbū'l-Khayr (357-440 AH). Charkhi himself says that he wrote this treatise because a close friend who was an honest dervish requested that, and because in this quatrain the attributes of god such as love and wrath is mentioned. The treatise is also called "Jamalieh". Three other commentators have written commentaries on this quatrain before Charkhi: Shams Maghrebi (749-809 AH), Shah NimatullahWali(731-834 AH), Qasem-e Anvar(757-837 AH). This treatise is short, but it has reflected the view of Naqshbandi Sufi order in this regard quite comprehensively. In this treatise, Charkhi interprets this quatrain as a reference to the attribute of God and considers it as an interpretation of the sura of Al-Fatiha. He believes that it is based on the verses of the sura of Al-Fatiha and the hadiths of Our Prophet Mohammad. This treatise is of a great importance to understand Naqshbandi Sufi order. So in this article the treatise of Howraieh by MawlanaYaqub al-Charkhi is considered and other treatises with the same title are also introduced. The main hypothesis and question of this research is to consider the contribution of Iranians to the development, compilation and writing of the Persian treatises on theoretical mysticism and on the intellectual foundations of mystics. And also questions such as: What was their role in the advancement of the mysticism or Islamic mysticism? How many scientists have written in Persian in this field After the death of Khwaja Abdullah Ansari(as the first writer of the mystic treatises)? This research is a library based research and also a field research. Books and sources are collected from libraries in Iran, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan. This research reveals that the treatise of Jamalieh or Hawraieh is one of the most important treatises in the field of theoretical mysticism that is dedicated to the interpretation of a quatrain attributed to Sheikh Abu Sa'idAbū'l-Khayr. This commentary is considered as the oldest commentary on thisquatrain (except the commentaries of Shams Maghrebi, Shah NimatullahWali, Qasem-e Anvar). This treatise shows the viewpoint of Charkhi as a Naqshbandi Sufi. Next Naqshbandi Sufis such as khajehObaid’allahAhrar, one of his pupils, has also written a commentary on this quatrain.

Afghan invasion of Isfahan in 1135 AH caused a deep crisis in the functioning of scientific and cultural institutions. Due to these increasing pressures many scholars and scientists left their city so that these institutions encountered huge problems. Although social changes and political instabilityduring afsharid Dynasty and Zand Dynasty also leads to the migration of scientists andincreased the stagnation of science in the scientific centers of Isfahan, but in this period there was no change in the number of scientific centers in Isfahan. Therefore, these events had a negative effect on the scientific prosperity in the traditional sciences, and also in this era scientists of the intellectual sciences were few in number and lacked brilliant scientific activity or works.The purpose of this study is to analyze the scientific and educational structures as well as the function of scientific and cultural institutions in Isfahan during the Afsharidynasty and Zandi dynasty after the fall of Safavids.The results of this study showed that the rise and glory of Isfahan suddenly disappeared after the invasion of Afghans and the fall of Isfahan in 1334 AH and there was a lot of devastation and political chaos in Isfahan.  Isfahan was repeatedly occupied by the Afshari and Zandi claimants after its conquest by the Afghans until the end of the Zand dynasty,and each time it was increasingly destroyed.During this period, Isfahan lost almost everything it had gained in the Safavid era. During the Afshari period, the city of Isfahan experienced a great crisis, especially in the scientific and cultural aspects. Reasons such as political decentralization, social unrest, and Nader Shah's focuson military affairs, and as a result, his lack of love for scholars, writers, and scientists, led many of them to emigrate to India and Atbat(holy shrines).In Zandieh period, although due to Karim Khan's great interest in science and his effective actions in this field, the return of scholars and scientists was facilitated and the situation wasrelativelyimproved, but the city of Isfahan never regained its former glory which it had in the Safavid era.The outbreak of the Afghan invasion in 1135 AH was the beginning of the transformation of Isfahan from a large political and religious center to a subordinate city.This incident, as a tragic social event, devastated the city economically and politically, natural disasters such as famine and various diseases and repeated riots also had obviously a long time impact on the city. Isfahan lost its glory which it had in the Safavid era. On the political and military issues, Nader Shah Afshar and Karim Khan Zand also made efforts to revive the glory, but Nader Shah Afshar paid too much attention to military affairs and he had great interest in the development of Mashhad, Karim Khan Zandalso was more interested to Shiraz and there was disorders after his death, then there was not any progress in Isfahan and scientific and cultural institutions were stagnated.During Zand Dynasty a literary society was established which can be considered as the progress of the situation.