فصلنامه ذهن
سال بیست و چهارم شماره 1 (پیاپی 93، بهار 1402)

Methodological naturalism, which is called Methodological Materialism or Methodological Atheism also, and introduced as a metaparadigm of the modern science, does not tolerate any theory or proposition which relates natural phenomenon to the supernatural causes and entities. Such an approach is divided into the week and strong ones, each one has its own necessities and outcomings. Studying and contemplating on such an approach is the aim of many components of philosophy of science and religion. It, however, identifies the limits and regulations governing the relationships between science and religion. Therefor researching the problem is a necessary obligation for the components of theological studies and those pretending the reformation of science based on religious doctrine.

The present issue studies the subject with biblical and analytical research method.

The result is that methodological naturalism is not based on authentic logical and epistemological foundations, nor is it a rational and coherent claim, and is not able to fulfill the promised expectations of it.

1.The history of science shows that several supernatural explanations have been the best explanations of natural phenomenon, and have boon simpler than the pure natural explanations. It indicates: (a) Insufficiency of stint to pure natural explanation, (b) Essential correlation between science and naturalism, (c) Sophistry of adopting naturalism to simplicity principle. 2.Epistemological and methodological attitudes are interpenetrated to the ontological views. Therefore, there is no room for naturalistic attitude in the former without it in the latter. It somehow leads to selfcontradiction also. 3. From the functional point of view methodological naturalism leads to: (a) Several limitations and disaffiliations, (b) Disconnecting science and technology from moral values, which is at last very harmful for humankind.

For a long time, the issue of "free will" has been one of the important topics among thinkers. Today, with the progress of neuroscience, scientists in this field have tried to explain this problem with an experimental approach. Therefore, Benjamin Libet and his colleagues have provided a new analysis of the formation process of voluntary action with laboratory studies on subjects. By examining the changing times of electrical oscillations in the brain, "conscious will" and muscle stimulation, they have discovered that the " readiness potential" begins to slowly change about 400 milliseconds before the time of awareness of the will, and this is the reason for the person's will to act. Therefore, Libet concluded that "unconscious brain process is the source of conscious will and voluntary action".

The current research method was textbook. it was criticized and investigated with the analytical-rational method.

In Sadrai's attitude to Libet's findings, according to the rational analysis of the process of voluntary action, the potential of previous preparation can be considered as the scientific stage of voluntary action, i.e. the stage of imagination and confirmation. We presented another analysis according to the types of agents. The soul, in the active role, naturally does its work without knowledge and will - in the sense of making a decision. But the soul, as a subject, performs its actions on the basis of knowledge and will. Therefore, the process of voluntary action is from the beginning of desire or conscious will to the realization of the action, such as the actions of the "subject with intention". Of course, issuing a will from an immaterial soul is like a "subject in manifestation". And here is the place of confrontation between Sadrai's view and Libet's findings. Because according to Libet's point of view, the conscious will has an unconscious origin. But according to Sadr al-Mutalahin, the will is issued from the soul and self-conscious origin. In addition, we presented a new analysis through the explanation of the truth of "material- immaterial levels of will".

Through laboratory and neurological observations, only the material order of the will and its electrical changes in nervous systems can be observed. But according to the progressive principles of transcendental wisdom, corresponding to this material level, the will has a non-physical level. The same conscious state that Libet did not access through the laboratory experiment, and asked the subjects themselves to report when they were aware of their will. Therefore, Benjamin Libet observed a series of changes before the conscious will after which the conscious will occurred. He then concluded that the unconscious brain process is the source of the conscious will. This conclusion of Libet is a rational argument. However, such scientific findings cannot challenge dualism, or in other words, Sadra's monotheism (the truth of a single material-immaterial human being). According to Sadra's progressive principles, not only this experiment is not considered a challenge for Sadra's psychology, but also some findings of this experiment are compatible with some aspects of rational and philosophical analysis of the gradual process of will.

Reason has different ontological and epistemological dimensions. Judging the first and second issues is the responsibility of philosophy and epistemology, respectively. However, these two depend on the clarity of meaning and the application of reason in different sciences.

Method of Study: 

The current research method was textbook. it was criticized and investigated with the analytical-rational method.

The meanings of intellect in different sciences are : 1 .In philosophy : a) In the proof book: a. notions and self-evident affirmations; b. A power in the soul that finds certainty without reasoning to general and selfevident premises . b) In Kitab al-Nafs: perceptive power which is divided into theoretical and practical and each is divided into degrees . c) In theology: the substance that is separated from bodies in the stage of essence, attributes and actions. 2 .In theology : a) Special sciences with which the obligee becomes capable of reasoning and doing what is assigned to him. b) The power that is institutionalized in humans and its requirement is the knowledge of axioms. c) A non-corporeal intelligent being that is single in terms of essence and action . d) Unrevealed knowledge. 3 .In ethics, it is sometimes referred to as science, to the facts of affairs, and sometimes to the understanding of science . 4 .In mysticism, it is sometimes used in the sense of a luminous substance and sometimes as a power placed in a human being with a single nature and a charitable nature . 5 .In the science of Tafsir, some consider it a collection of sciences and others consider it a power in the soul. In some explanatory sources, the world of abstracts has been interpreted as the world of intellects. 6 .Hadiths have used wisdom in the following meanings: a. The power that people use in the system of life affairs (sense of livelihood, or wickedness and mischief); b. human speaking soul; J. Levels of talent; d. Old single substance that does not belong to matter. In the visions, "Intelligence from God" is the deep insight and knowledge that prevents the human soul from sinning against God. 7 .From the point of view of Fegh and Osoul, intellect is used in the two meanings of the faculty of proof of generalities and intellectual proofs . 8. In epistemology, intellect has two meanings: a. A force that understands facts in a general way and engages in reasoning; b. Intellectual perception, which is the product of perceptive power, and of course, this use is more abundant than the first use.

1. The three meanings of perceptive power, rational perceptions and detached substance are common uses of reason in science . 2 .The first meaning is used in all the mentioned sciences, although it may be assigned to a chapter of a science, or the meaning of being the first is objected to by some, or a limitation may be added to it. 3 .The second meaning is used like the first meaning in most of the aforementioned sciences . 4 .The third meaning is only used in sciences such as philosophy, theology, mysticism, interpretation and hadith, of course, the use of this meaning is evaluated in some sciences such as philosophy as a lot and in others as interpretation as little. 5 .Reason has specific uses in some sciences such as theology and hadith; Like the use of intellect in the state and queen, which is only used in the science of hadith . 6. It can be inferred from the semantics of reason that most of the mentioned sciences have accepted the existence of connected and disconnected reason; However, there are also deniers. 7. In the modern era, rationality as a description of actions (second meaning) replaced wisdom in the sense of objective (detached intellect) and subjective (connected intellect).

Unlike linguistic metaphors, conceptual metaphors make a systematic connection between two conceptual domains. In this way, an abstract concept is understood through an objective and tangible concept. Understanding abstract concepts is possible for humans through conceptual metaphors. Therefore, conceptual metaphors have a significant presence both in everyday language and in scientific literature. These metaphors do not only have an aesthetic role and cannot be simply removed from the thought. One of the most important daily human experiences is encountering different geographical directions in the concrete world. These directions are also used metaphorically to understand abstract concepts. One of these directions is the core-surface orientation . Core literally means the depth of an object, which is contrasted with "surface" meaning the face and appearance of the object. Because the objects of the concrete world have three dimensions, they have core and surface. The use of this direction in everyday and common language, as well as in scientific and philosophical texts, is not limited to the same literal meaning. Mulla Sadra used this direction in a metaphorical way to describe many abstract matters. Metaphors based on this direction can be divided into two categories; epistemological metaphors and ontological metaphors In epistemological metaphors, the direction plays a significant role in explaining and solving an epistemological problem. Of course, this does not mean that these types of metaphors do not have any ontological role for the mentioned direction. Rather, a part of reality is described by this metaphor. But the mentioned description also has an epistemological function. Ontological metaphors are used only to describe and explain reality .

By referring to Mulla Sadra's works, the cases of using the core-surface direction are extracted from the text and then its content analysis is done. Then conceptual metaphors are regularly identified and introduced.

The epistemological metaphors found in Mulla Sadra's texts are: "Existence as thing that has core and surface", " God as thing that has core and surface", "divine attributes as things that have core and surface, " quiddity as thing that has core and surface", "simple concept as thing that has core and surface" , " intelligible and sensible as core and surface,Ontological metaphors also include: form as thing that has core and surface" , "cause of thing as core of thing" and " Maximum possible amount of thing as core of thing". Since the collection of the above items was done in an inductive way, it is probable that there are other metaphors based on this direction in Mullah Sadra's works .

The mentioned conceptual metaphors have all benefited from the conventional human experience in facing the coresurface direction in the objective and sensible world. In this way, many of the rules governing the direction of core-surface in the concrete world have been transferred to abstract rules governing metaphysical matters. Epistemological metaphors all stem from the conventional experience that knowledge of the depth of an object is more difficult than knowledge of the surface of an object.

The rule of intrinsically good and bad (al-husn walqubh) is one of the most challenging theological principles among theological schools. The theologians of Ash'ari have denied intrinsically good and bad and consider it to be merely narration and religious which is outside the topic of the article. But other theologians (Imamiya, Mu'tazila and Matoridiyya) were in favor of the perception of good and bad and considered it self-evident and certain, but philosophers considered its source to be conjectures (popular premises, praiseworthy opinions, and accepted premises) and proof in special cases. On this basis, they have the logical (certainty) epistemological value in general.

Method of Study:

 In this article, the author will clarify with an analytical method that the foundations and arguments of the theologians' theory in proving the evidence or certainty of good and bad are weak and can be faulted, although its rationality (in the nonnarrative sense and including suspicion and certainty) is acceptable.

Most Imami and Mu'tazila theologians are believe the above rule that the human mind is capable of distinguishing and knowing the good and bad of actions, in such a way that it first praises and condemns the agent of good and bad actions and from that he infers the praise and condemnation of the lawgiver. They insisted on the following reasons: 1. Narrative reasons: Many verses and hadiths are used, which people have considered the principle of the possibility of perception of intrinsically good and bad to be an absolute and presupposed principle and based on that, they are spoken to and they are asked to think and reasoning about good and bad. It seems that if the theologians mean by proof and certainty of good and bad in general is concerned by simply referring to the evidence of the goodness of justice and the badness of injustice, then it is correct, but the reason for this is the meaning of good and bad returns to the essence of the meaning of justice and injustice. But if what they mean by the evidence of good and bad is the claim of the assumption of good and bad in its examples in general, it is an extravagant claim and without reason, but a person by conscientious observes many cases and examples that the reason cannot understand the certainty of good and bad without Sharia is powerless. 2. Rational reason (evidence): They consider good and bad, like the goodness of justice and the badness of injustice, as self-evident and necessary principles, because whoever imagines the truth of justice or injustice, immediately judges the goodness of justice and the badness of injustice. The previous fault (goodness of concept of justice and its evidence and not its example) also apply to this argument. Philosophers consider the knowledge of good and bad actions for humans not to be certain, but to be psychological conjecture and certainty. So that its documentation is not rational and proof-based reason but popular premises and accepted premises. But it can be useful for certainty if there is a special reason. They prove their theory with arguments such as: 1. Denying the evidence of intrinsically good and bad and not proving it intellectually; 2. Good and bad are the dignity of practical reason (presumptivepopular premises) not theoretical (proof); 3. Lack of encirclement of reason (theoretical and practical) have referred to examples of good and bad; .4Non-belong of evidence to I'tibārī.

In this article, it was clarified that the rule of good and bad cannot be limited to a theological theory (certain), rather it includes a theory that denies good and bad, but consider the perception of good and bad intrinsically in its general sense (presumptive and certainty - rational versus narrative). Finally, Philosophers have taken issue in claiming the evidence.

The concept of reality is one of the challenges we are concerned about nowadays in the philosophy of physics. In fact, this challenge has risen with the advent of quantum mechanics, a challenge that frustrated Einstein with quantum mechanics, of which he was a co-founder, and led him to consider it incomplete (EPR, 1935). According to Einstein, due to this "incompleteness", quantum mechanics -in addition to the standard variables- needs complementary variables that are hidden. These kinds of hidden variables theories are not discussed here. The purpose of this paper is to study the concept of reality in standard quantum mechanics that considers its dominant interpretation, i.e. the Copenhagen interpretation with the principal contribution of Bohr and Heisenberg. This interpretation is very close to logical positivism and the Vienna circle; but it is not. Therefore, in this article, we will examine the views of Bohr and Heisenberg and scientific positivism and their interpretation of "reality." There are elements of reality that are not affected by our knowledge, they have been criticized by empiricist and positivist philosophers, who believe that in any case "physical reality" cannot be more than what we know about it and we are talking about it. This interpretation of "reality" which is based on intersubjectivity, in the second half of the twentieth century, has been influential in other sciences from chemistry to literature and has become a paradigm, also it has affected the human mind. In modern social science "construction of social reality" can be made by something that everyone knows or a "collective intentionality". In reality, this criterion leads humans to the creation of "hyperreality" -a valid forgery or a copy without origin- instead of "reality". "hyperreality" is defined as the conscious inability to distinguish between "simulation" and "reality", especially in advanced postmodern industrial societies, where reality and imagination are entangled and indistinguishable (Baofu, 2009).

Method of Study: 

A comparative method has been used between physics and social science to show how the concepts and paradigms in physics could affect the human mind.

As a result of this research, base of some misconceptions in the modern era have been extracted and also shown their effects, for example, bliss is misunderstood, and a high rate of suicide in modern countries is a consequence of it.

Although quantum mechanics has had experimental successes, its interpretations have fundamental and unanswered problems, and these two (experimental successes of quantum mechanics and interpretations) are two completely independent and separate things that it is wrong to equate them. This mistake has led to the authenticity of anti-realist philosophies. Thus, "weak objectivity" has become the criterion of all reality. The requirement of weak objectivity is communicable", that is, the reality is intersubjective. Hence, in science, "communicability" is the measure of existing scientific reality. Regarding this definition of scientific reality, for example, the media can construct a "social reality" in what is made as "collective intentionality" which is not real, it is a "hyperreality".

According to the theory of conceptual metaphors, the metaphorical nature of language is caused by the metaphorical nature of thought, and linguistic metaphors are the reflection of metaphor in thought. There are many abstract concepts in the Holy Quran and Nahj al balaghe, and how these mental concepts are understood by humans and how these concepts are conceptualized by the speakers can be considered and investigated. Due to the importance of clothing as the most basic concrete concepts known and understood by mankind and its abundance in metaphorical application, the present research is structured in the framework of cognitive linguistics, in the framework of cognitive semantics, and with the application of the theory of conceptual metaphor. The answer to the following questions is how to rely on the cognitive theory of metaphor to understand the abstract concepts that the Qur'an and Nahj al-Balagha have objectified for their audience and extract the mappings in the minds of the speakers? What points does spiritual and abstract express?

Method of Study:

 The current research has been completed with the tool of citation-library collection and descriptive-analytical method and the level of analysis of content analysis with the tool of conceptual metaphor.

The findings of the present research indicate that in the Holy Quran the concepts of: piety, hunger and fear, night and marital relationship, and in the Nahj al-Balaghah the concepts of: moderation, honor, jihad, dignity, fitness, change of correct Islamic rulings and modesty as the areas of destination. abstract, by the concrete concept of clothing and covering as the domain of tangible origin that humans know all their angles and structures; It has been facilitated for the audience to objectify and understand them.Since religious texts have the most abstract concepts, the practical application of the mentioned research is that it proves the possibility of religious art in such a way that with various image schemas, deep spiritual and abstract concepts can be presented according to the capacity of the audience.

The concept of clothing and covering as a single source domain had essences and elements that could be mapped onto the destination domains in the Qur'an and Nahj al-Balagha and lead to objectification and better understanding of these concepts. However, among these components, some of them are bolder than the rest of the elements and have been repeated several times in abstract concepts, including the component of covering and surrounding, which was applied to 9 abstract concepts from the tangible domain of clothes; Also, the beauty component was mapped in 8 concepts, the protection and maintenance component in 7 concepts and the component of always being in one's body were mapped in 5 concepts. Finally, paying attention to the mapping of the conceptual metaphors of clothes, eloquence and eloquence in the expression of doctrine and guidance and completion of the argument proves guidance for all the world in educational teachings.