نشریه پژوهش های دستوری و بلاغی
پیاپی 22 (پاییز و زمستان 1401)

Both critical discourse analysis and the theory of systemic-functional linguistics use a variety of approaches from disciplines such as linguistics and sociology to investigate the interconnections between texts and overall power relations. The three-stage model of description, interpretation, and explanation, as well as terms and concepts, are connected in Fairclough's Approach, while the functional theory is linked to different functions of language and clause terminology, as well as to the three interpersonal, interpersonal, and textual axes. We chose Forough Farrokhzad's poem "I miss you" to investigate the simultaneous application of analytical tools from two theories mentioned to Persian literature, namely the use of functional grammar at the level of description and interpretation of the critical discourse analysis. We considered two main functional purposes. We wanted to present an accurate review of these two theories, followed by a linguistic analysis of this poem. We tried to discover the text’s ideology and its relationship to social structures. In short, we wanted to discover the relationship between the discourse of the text and the power relations of its time. The findings show that this poem inveighs against and rejects not only the Pseudo-modernity that ruled Iran during its time, but also traditional and neutral discourses, as well as tyrannical, nationalistic, and male-dominated systems. On the contrary, Political-social fight, feminism, and humanism are reproduced and articulated. Meanwhile, the tone of the message is critical of the dangerous religious attitudes held by some religious individuals. A bilateral relationship exists between some poetic symbols that invite multiple interpretations and the democratic relations which welcome multiple voices.

Jami has composed Baharestan according to the characteristics of Golestan. Despite the greater tendency of both works to use the pole of "selection" instead of "combination", the problem arises that despite the fact that the two works that are close to each other in terms of style, what characteristics they have in terms of language and what are the linguistic similarities or differences between the two. In this research, the structure of the nominal group (NP) as one of the important structures of the language in a corpus taken from examples from Golestan and Baharestan has been investigated in a descriptive-analytical way. The findings of the research show that the frequency of NPs in Golestan is more than that of Baharestan. Also, the frequency and relative frequency of NPs without dependents is more in Golestan than that of Baharestan. Examining dependents in NPs shows two results that the constructions "head+noun", "head+adjective" and "head+noun group" are the dominant constructions of single dependent NPs and "relative clause" is as the dominant posterior dependent of NPs in Golestan and Baharestan. On the other hand, the constructions "quantifier + head", "head+ noun", "head + adjective" and "head + noun group" are the dominant constructions of single dependent NPs in Golestan and the constructions of "indefinite adjective + head", "head + noun", "head + adjective", "head + relative clause", "head + NP" and "head + prepositional group” are the dominant constructions in Baharestan.

The revenge religious epic Poem Enteghamieh / Zarirnameh by Taghan Shah Ibn Nizam Qommi Shahroudi is one of the prominent examples of religious epic in Persian literature. It was written in the 9th century AH about Zareer Khozai, Muhammad Hanafiyah, Mosayyeb, Taghan, Omar Bin Ali, Fazl Jafar and other heroes taking revenge on Yazid, Omar Saad, Yaqub Asklani, King of Aleppo and other Yazid supporters. The story of the poem begins with the arrival of the caravan of captives of Karbala to Ashqlan and ends with the rescue of Imam Sajjad (a.s.) and the caravan of Karbala from Yazid's grip and finally with Yazid's death. Examining the syntax of the poem is useful for learning more about the epic language of this poem and other religious poems. By examining the poem syntactically , more linguistic and content layers are obtained from this work. In this research, firstly, we have talked about epic, religious epic, the causes of its emergence, and offering some examples. We have also provided a brief introduction about Ibn Nizam and his poems especially Zarirnameh.Then some grammatical points of this work have been examined by citing evidence from the text. We realized that the archaic style is quite evident in it, and it can be considered one of the prominent religious epics deserving more attention in terms of the texture of the story, the power of the words, the appropriate language, and the grammatical structure.

Word formation processes mean word formation methods in a language. Some researchers consider blending, acronyms and clipping as creative processes of word-making. While the meaning of creativity in this research is to make a creative link between two concepts to form a new words and as a result, the meaning of the word not transparency according to its morphemes. This review, based on the entries of a dictionary chief editor by Hasan Anvari shows that creative word- formation is used extensively in Persian language with different constructions such as derivation, Compounding and metaphorical expansion. Also the derivation in Persian is not completely matched with the definitions found in morphological theories whereas mostly based on the English language data. On the other hand, the number of derivational fixes that have the ability to create creative words, such as “ak” in Golle + ak (summit+suffix=piggy bank), or “i” in kashk+i (curd+ suffix= absurd).is different compared to some other languages. Also there are many different constructions of creative compounds in Persian language. Metaphorical extension in connection with what is referred to as semantic expansion in semantics is another type of word formation that is not limited to the use of words from one field in another field, for example, the use of words from the field of horse-riding to the field of driving and has a wider range in the Persian language. Therefore, creative word-making in various forms, figurative-derivative such as rood + e (river+suffix) means intestine, metonymy-derivative such as rooz+e (day+suffix=fasting), also combinations are divided into five categories, such as simile like sang+del (stone + heart= hard-hearted), metaphorical like āb+zir+kāh (water+under+straw=cunning), metonymical like namak+nashnās (salt+ignorant=ungrateful) and ironic like kāhane-kharāb (house+ destroyed= poor) and creative adjective like nāzok-del (thin+heart=touchy). Metaphorical extension like ānten (informer) is also used. With the variety of creative word-formation in Persian language, it deserves more attention in creating new words and considering the lack of simple verbs in Persian language, it has productivity to a large extent.

deviation is the most effective form of foregrounding the language and includes all the methods that disrupt the conventional rules of the language and lead to defamiliarization. Grammatical deviation is used to remove familiarity from language of poetry and includes avoiding the rules of morphology and syntax governing the language. Every language has a specific grammatical structure, but in poetry, this structural order is ignored. In the field of rhetoric, we come across a set of methods formed in order to highlight the meaning of the poem and lead to rhetorical innovations. The present study , with a descriptive-analytical method, aims to identify, categorize and analyze the basic techniques that have played a significant role in the evolution of contemporary ghazal by reflecting on the ghazals of "Manochehr Neyestani", "Mohammad Ali Bahmani" and "Hossein Monzavi" and answer these questions "what are the commonly used grammar and rhetorical technics that have led to the highlighting of form and meaning in the new ghazal, and which of the mentioned poets has played a more effective role in renewing the image of the ghazal. The findings from the study show that the common rhetorical techniques in the ghazals of these three poets, in addition to the use of other symbols, metaphors, similes, personification and paradoxes, are due to the power of imagination and portraying the unseen and unheard things that have formed in the poet's mind. Grammatical metanormatives common in the ghazals of the mentioned poets in two fields of grammar and syntax include: lexical, temporal and syntactical metanormatives. The extent of using these methods by the mentioned poets is different. Hossein Monzavi is considered one of the pioneers of this field due to the frequency and variety of grammatical metanormatives and rhetorical methods, and he has played a significant role in reinventing the image of ghazal.

There are a group of poets, who have indulged in the use of strange and far-fetched similes and metaphors in the Indian style to such an extent that the meanings of their words have sometimes become close to a riddle. Hence, they are known as imaginary poets. Asir Shahrestāni is one of the followers of this style. He has been considered the founder of this style in some biographies of poets. It must be said that he has employed similes more than any other imageries to convey his desired meanings. Using a descriptive-analytical method, the current research was to investigate the effects of various similes on the ambiguity of the meanings and themes of Asir's ghazalz. Based on the findings of this study, Asir Shahrestāni uses some approaches in using similes that have a great impact on the ambiguity and complexity of his speech. Among these approaches, we could mention his skillful use of abstract elements, use of topics and images with numerous additions, and integration of the two sides of comparison with symmetries. In addition, the density of similes in the horizontal axis of his poems was effective in the perpetuality of the themes in his poetry. On the other hand, it could be said that the creation of novel similes had in many cases made the themes and subjects of his poetry outstanding and strange. Moreover, some linguistic and expressive slips could sometimes be observed in his similes.

Hafez Shirazi (727 AH/1325 AD - 792 AH/1390 AD) is one of the great poets whose lyrical poems are full of various socially-significant words with many expressive, relational and experimental meanings and values. These words have meanings beyond the normal and denotational level and are a way to a better understanding of Hafez's thoughts and ideas, and the phenomena and realities that took place in his time. By using direct and indirect methods and numerous rhetorical devices such as ambiguity and multi-layered metaphors, especially irony and paradox and with the help of the emotional load of marked words, Hafez deals with social criticism and reform. taking into account the social-historical situation of Hafez's era and relying on the analysis of Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis , this research, with the descriptive-analytical method, , the most frequent socially significant words in the ghazals of "Lisan al-Ghayb" in the three levels of "description", "interpretation" and "explanation" are analyzed. Then, critical action of Hafez against the most important institutions of society; that is, politics, Sufism and Sharia are examined. Based on the results of this study, Hafez's language and expression is a "social action" that is both acted on" by and actively influence the thoughts, emotions, behaviors and socio-political relations of his time, and "active" in levels, fields and formats leaving a deep and lasting effect on them and has left its own role on people's life, worldview and values.

The focus of this interdisciplinary research is the coordinates (how and why) of the images in the poem "Meh", by Ahmed Shamlou, in relation to intratextual and extratextual variables. The main purpose of the article is the analysis of rhetorical-social images of this poem. Norman Fairclough's theory of critical discourse analysis was used to realize both aims. The rhetorical aspects of the images, the situational context of the images, and the socio-political dimensions (macrotexture) of the images were analyzed respectively at the levels of description, interpretation, and explanation. According to Fairclough's method, attention should be paid to the texture, dimensions and ideological function of the images at all levels. “Meh”s has a symbolic structure and its images include similes, metaphors, synesthesia, ironies and ambiguity. The poem, represents the situation of a desert-sea in a "foggy night". There are two dominant images in the poem; One compares Iran's suspended political-social situation after the 1953 coup to night, and the other likens the society caught in this situation to a desert/sea that is not yet dead and hopes for the emergence of positive changes. The big picture of the poem is the closed and unclear political-social space of Iran, which is represented in the symbol of the foggy night and the desert-like sea. The situational context of the images includes "the connection with the textual context of the discourse, the time and reality coordinates affecting the composition and depiction of the poem, and the political and social situational context". The ideological function of the images is to denaturalize the political state of society and the ruling discourse while naturalizing the discourse of struggle and resistance. The subject of this poem is the social and political situation of Iran in the early 30s from the perspective of revolutionary intellectuals, which was created due to the conflict between internal and external political and social forces and left the society in an uncertain state from improvement to deterioration.

Literary works are evaluated and analyzed from different points of view. Rhetorical criticism is one of the methods of literary criticism in which we evaluate the text from the perspective of the function of rhetorical devices and images. This article deals with the rhetorical review and criticism of the Masnavi of protest "Swamps and Waters Poem" by Seyyed Hasan Hosseini. In this poem, the poet objects to the social situation and spiritual changes in the society after the war. The aim of the article is to analyze the mentioned text from the point of view of the influence of rhetorical elements to clarify how the poet has used these devices to achieve his goal and convey the message. In this research, 77 couplets of this poem are examined based on its figures of thought and figures of meaning. The result of the research shows that the poet expresses concern about social problems with figurative language. By observing abnormal approaches that have an unfavorable reflection on the individual and the society, he changes the way of language an speaks out. As a poet of engagement, Hosseini views rhetorical arts not only as a means of creating aesthetic effects, but also as a way to expose social problems, and express feelings of happiness and longing. With the help of language facilities, he intends to provide a favorable context for the reconstruction of Islamic and social values.

Most of the Judgments about the Poetry of the Return Period are General and Hypothetical, and their Proof needs more and more detailed Investigation. The structure of the Poetic Image is a Collection of Various Rhetorical Elements that are Produced by each poet's Special Vision and Language; In other words, the result of Analyzing the Geometry of a Poetic Image will be Various Artistic Structures that have Played a role in its Formation. One of the necessary tools for a thorough Examination is the Knowledge of Stylistics, which is a good Criterion for Examining the Poetry of Poets of any Period with two Characteristics of Frequency and Analogy. The Present Research, which is based on a Quantitative-Statistical Method and a Stylistic Approach, explores the geometry of the poetic Images of the Divans of six Prominent Poets of the Return Period (Mushtaq Esfahani, Hatef Esfahani, Azar Begdeli, Soroush Esfahani, Sabai Kashani and Fathullah Khan Sheibani) tries to Avoid Common Generalizations Regarding the Similarity of the Poetry of the Poets of the Period of Return to the Poetry of the Poets from the Previous Styles, by Presenting Accurate Statistics and Clearly Discussing the Amount of using Individual and Combined Artistic Structures by each poet. Besides that the study Determines the Level and Quality of the Structure of the Images in Terms of Simplicity or Complexity Comparing the Geometry of the Images of each Poet with the Structure of the images of Poets of other Styles. The Results of this Research show that as we move away from the Indian Style (and the Ancient Safavi Era) and get Closer to the Qajar era, the Number of Composite Artworks and the Percentage of Complexity of Images Decrease and the Scale of Individual Artworks and Images Decreases. For example, the Structure of Mushtaq's Poetic Images (the first and the closest Poet of this study to the Indian Style) goes beyond the Khorasani Style and is placed in the Geometric row of Iraqi Style Images, but the Structure of the Images of Sheibani's odes is exactly the same with the Geometry of Farrokhi Sistani's images! Generally, it can be Mentioned that the General Structure of the Images of the Poetry of the Return Period is close to the Geometry of Images of the Khorasani Style and is Further away from the Geometry of the Images of the Indian Style.

Khatay-Namih is a Travelogue Belonging to 1506 AD, which was Composed by a Merchant who had Travelled to China. The Current study Probes relative clause Extraposition and its Motivations as a non-obligatory Movement mainly based on Functional and Stylistic Criteria in this Travelogue. In this study, 173 Relative Clauses were Extracted from 173 pages based on Systematic Sampling that Covers more than half of the book. All Relative Clauses were Analyzed based on: their Position, Role of Head NPs and the information Structure of their Verbs. Data Suggest that the rate of Relative clause Extraposition in Khatay-Namih Travelogue is not Remarkable (23%); however, most relative clauses Generally tend to Modify Subject and Object NPs (Keenan & Comrie, 1977). In this book, Relative clauses Function mostly as the Modifier of Adjuncts like adverbs. This study also shows the Significant effect of verb Information Structure on relative clause extraposition, as more than 76% of all extraposed clauses include linking Verbs that seem to have Old-given information. Regarding the Grammatical weight, the Extraposed Relative clauses of Khatay-Namih are heavy showing Degree (4) Compared to the Weight of the Main Clause from which they have been Extracted. In all Factors Studied Including Extraposition Frequency, Head NP role in the Main, and Subordinate clause, head NPs within the relative clause, and relative clause Grammatical weight, Khatay-Namih Travelogue shows a Relative Complexity in the style and Structures of its Sentences which can also be Considered as a Characteristic of the Writing and Prose of the Safaviyeh Period. The fact Coordinates with the Stylistic Criteria of this Period Reported in Different other Works.

A Significant part of Literary texts in both Arabic and Persian Languages is included in Committed Literature. Instilling the Authenticity of Imam Ali to the Audience is the Objective Manifestation of this type of Literature in the Past era. Seyyed Hemyari and Naser Khosrow are among the Poets who Praised the Qualities of Imam Ali with Heartfelt knowledge, Sincerity, and thought. They Wrote good Poems with themes from the Verses of the Holy Quran, Hadiths and Historical events. Based on the Descriptive-analytical Method, this Research Compares some Persuasion Techniques in the Poems of both Poets in Depicting the Righteousness of Imam Ali. On the other hand, Persuasive tactics have been Measured with the Criterion of Coherence, which is Proposed in Halliday's Role-Oriented theory. The Lexical, Grammatical and Linking Coherence of the text has helped both poets to Convince the Audience by Creating an Atmosphere of Confirmation and Explanation and Sometimes Expansion and Renewal in order to reach the Authenticity of Imam Ali. Lexical Cohesion, Especially Repetition, which is Considered one of the Main Techniques of Persuasion, has a high Frequency in the Poetry of both Poets. Also, causal Relationship has a more Significant role in Shaping Persuasion Techniques than other Components of Cohesiveness. Grammatical Coherence is less used in Persuasion Techniques by the Two Poets. The Reason for the Authors' interest in these two Poets is the Almost Similar life and age Conditions of the two Poets and of Course their way of thinking, which is to inform the people of their time about the Virtues of Imam Ali.