نشریه اندیشه های نوین تربیتی
سال نوزدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 68، تابستان 1402)

Educational systems require optimal educational methods to achieve their large scale goals and promote creative thinking. This study aimed to propose a rhizomatic model for training creative thinking. This mixed-methods exploratory research proposed and approved a model. The rhizomatic model was designed and presented qualitatively, and then implemented via a quantitative quasi-experimental design. In the quantitative phase, the statistical population comprised all the sixth-grade male students in state-run schools of Sahneh (Iran) in the academic year 2018-2019. A sample was selected purposively from two classes in this city. A class of 34 students served as the experimental group, and another class of 34 as the control group. The data collection tool was Schaeffer’s Creative Attitude Survey. The analysis of covariance demonstrated the model's influence on the students’ creative thinking growth.

Research indicates that teachers, from kindergarten to high school, have diminished students’ creativity over the past two decades because creativity is associated with nonconformity, impulsivity, and disruption of class activities (Shahalizadeh et al., 2014). Educational authorities must, therefore, focus on the improvement of creativity in teachers and students (Magdalena and Krzysztof, 2013, pp. 18-19).Post-structuralist philosophers Deleuze and Guattari believe that thinking used to be tree-like, vertical, and hierarchical in the past; in the contemporary world, however, it is rhizomatic and horizontal (Raeesi, Mahmoudi, and Oveisi Kahkha, 2019). In rhizomatic thinking, the educational setting is open to new ideas. Learners grow through discussion, curiosity, and participation in learning, and teachers act as guides or facilitators in students’ process of discovery (Charney, 2017). Zamani (2020), Shakoori Monfared and Ardalani (2020), Sajjadi and Baghernejad (2011), Selahshoori and Haghverdi (2015), Ahmadabadi, Farajollahi, and Abollahyar (2017) studied rhizomatic education and its relationship with creativity, the curricula, education, philosophy, and epistemology.According to what was stated, a close tie between rhizomatic thinking and creativity has been established. The present study aimed to identify and document the dimensions and components of the educational model of rhizomatic thinking, and then assess the model's impact on the creativity of sixth-grade students in the Experimental Sciences course. This study addressed the following questions:What are the dimensions and components of rhizomatic education?Does the rhizomatic educational model promote students’ creative thinking?

This was a mixed-methods research. Herein, based on the research objectives and questions, the two-phase exploratory sequential design of the theory-building type was deemed to be the best design. In the qualitative phase, the relevant literature was analyzed with a review of the theoretical foundations using deductive content analysis, and the rhizomatic education model was extracted. Due to the plurality of sources, a sample of accessible print and digital documents was purposively selected. The data were collected via note-taking. After extracting the initial concepts, semi-structured interviews were conducted with six experts to develop the rhizomatic thinking educational model. Confirmability and credibility were adopted to validate the results through triangulation. Inter-rater agreement served as a reliability measure. Then, the data were analyzed by thematic analysis. In the quantitative phase, a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design was employed. The statistical population comprised all the sixth-grade male students in state-run schools of Sahneh (Iran) in the academic year 2018-2019. Two classes were purposively selected as the sample. A class of 34 students taking the Experimental Sciences course served as the experimental group, and another class of 34 as the control group. The experimental group was educated based on the educational model (rhizomatic content and method) in three sessions, while the control group received conventional education (conventional content and method). The data collection tool was Schaeffer’s Creative Attitude Survey. To assess the reliability of the test, a Cronbach's alpha of 0.82 was calculated based on the scores of 26 students.  The data were analyzed via multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA).

The first question was qualitatively answered. Among the limited resources and documents available on rhizomatic thinking (two specialized books, two theses/dissertations, and 11 research articles on rhizomatic education), 129 statements were extracted upon an in-depth review; then, 17 basic themes and six organizing themes were extracted: methodological thinking, design thinking, deconstructive thinking, creative thinking, conflicts, and the concept of communication. In the quantitative phase, a univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was run in SPSS 22 to assess the research hypotheses. The mean ± SD of the pretest scores of creativity were 12.44 ± 3.72 and 11.64 ± 3.32 in the experimental and control groups, respectively. The mean ± SD of the posttest scores of creativity were 17.79 ± 4.47 and 12.05 ± 3.65 in the experimental and control groups, respectively.The F value was not significant at the 0.05 level on pretest in the two groups (F = 2.005, df = 1), yet it was significant at the 0.0001 level on posttest in the two groups (F = 35.53, df = 1, p > 0.0001) (Table 1). Therefore, the rhizomatic educational model affects students’ creativity. For a closer examination of mean and SD, the gains made by each group are presented in Table 2.Table 2 demonstrates the higher mean gains made by the experimental compared to the control group, and this difference was significant (t = 2.66, df = 66, p > 0.0008). Although the means of both groups increased on the posttest, the magnitude of this increase was greater in the experimental than that in the control group.

In this study, we designed and presented a rhizomatic-based educational model and assessed its effects on the creative thinking of the sixth-grade male students. In the first phase, the rhizomatic educational model was qualitatively designed and presented. In the second phase, the magnitude of the effect of this model on students’ creative thinking growth was assessed via a quasi-experimental quantitative design. The findings revealed that creativity was enhanced in the group educated based on the rhizomatic model. This finding is consistent with the results reported by Cronje (2018), Wilson (2018), Zamani (2020), Shakoori Monfared and Ardalani (2020), Abdollahyar, Sobhaninejad, and Farmihani (2019), Ahmadabadi Arani, Farajollahi, and Abdollahyar (2017), Selahshoori and Haghverdi (2015).Implications of this study include: 1. More educational courses can be offered to teachers and students to familiarize them with rhizomatic thinking-based education so that they can accurately implement it. 2. The school and class setting can be adapted to the dimensions, components, and skills of rhizomatic education.

The present study aims to investigate the relationship between religiosity and cigarette smoking in male adolescents. The statistical population of this study includes male senior high school students in Tehran. Multi-stage cluster sampling was used to select 290 students who filled out Golak and Stark Religiosity Questionnaire (1965) and Firoozabadi Nicotine addiction questionnaire (2016) to collect information. Data was analyzed with Pearson’s correlation coefficient and multiple regression analysis. Findings revealed a significant correlation between religiosity and cigarette addiction. The correlation between total score of religiosity and cigarette addiction is inverse (-0.360) such that the more religious an individual is, the lower their cigarette addiction rate is. The results of multiple regression analysis indicate that religiosity dimensions, except for experience dimension, can predict cigarette addiction.

Drug abuse among adolescents is currently one of the health, social and economic issues across the world, which directly affects their health (Delavari Heravi et al., 2005). Drug abuse starts in many people at high school, therefore, one of the most important ways to reduce drug abuse in adulthood is to control it in adolescence. Studies show that most adolescents start using drugs around the age of 12 or 13. Researchers argue that adolescents start using legal substances such as tobacco and then turn to illegal substances such as alcohol, inhalants and marijuana (Pumariega et al., 2005). Many researchers believe that faith and religiosity can help individuals deal with emotions and social conditions. Besides, religiosity is correlated with several mental health indicators; for example, religious people turn to delinquency, drug and alcohol abuse, divorce and suicide less frequently than non-religious people (Diener et al., 2002: 82). Some factors affect drug abuse as protective factors and others as risk factors. One of the protective factors is religiosity, reported in some studies (Wills et al., 2003: 24) as a shield against drug dependence. Recent studies on the relationship between religiosity and the tendency to smoke in adolescents in Iran have been conducted mostly with study populations of university students and adults, and most studies have focused on religiosity with other issues (identity crisis, lifestyle, etc.). Therefore, given the importance of this subject and its potential impact on committing high-risk behaviors such as the tendency to smoke, this study was conducted to investigate the role of religiosity in the tendency to smoke among male adolescents in Tehran.

The research method in this descriptive study was correlational, which is classified as applied research. The study population consisted of all male students aged 15 to 18 in Tehran (n = 364,118 according to the statistics of the General Directorate of Education of Tehran province). The sample size was considered to be 290 given the study population and using Cochran's Formula. After determining the sample size, cluster-random sampling method was used to select the participants. In the current study, first one district was randomly selected from among different districts in Tehran using multi-stage cluster method, and then three schools were randomly selected in each district to administer the questionnaire, and then the Religiosity Questionnaire (Glock and Stark, 1965) and the Nicotine Addiction Questionnaire were randomly distributed among the students of selected schools. Finally, after exclusion of 12 incomplete questionnaires, 278 questionnaires entered data analysis. Religiosity Scale (Glock and Stark, 1965) has 26 items and is used to measure the level of religiosity in four dimensions: belief, practice, experience and consequences. The alpha coefficient of the whole questionnaire has been reported to be 0.83 (Ahankoobnejad, 2010: 4). The alpha coefficient has been reported as 0.81 for belief dimension, 0.75 for experience dimension, 0.72 for consequences dimension and 0.83 for practice dimension (Serajzadeh, 1995). The Nicotine Addiction Questionnaire (Firouzabadi et al., 2015) consists of five items and is aimed to investigate nicotine dependence. The internal validity of the whole scale was reported as 0.84 and its Cronbach's alpha as 0.84.

Out of the 290 participants, 38 (13.1%) were 15 years, 65 (22.4%) 16 years, 113 (39%) 17 years, and 61 (21%) 18 years and 12 individuals (4.5%) did not answer the item on age.In Table 1, based on the obtained correlation coefficients, the correlation between the overall score of religiosity and nicotine addiction is inverse (-0.360), and therefore it can be argued that people with higher religiosity have lower nicotine addiction (p<0.01).  Also, the correlation of nicotine addiction with belief, consequences and practice dimensions as well as with the total score of religiosity was significant and inverse (p<0.01). The correlation between nicotine addiction and the experience dimension of religiosity was also not significant (p<0.05).Table 2 shows the results of multiple regression analysis for predicting nicotine addiction through religiosity dimensions.Given that the value of the tolerance statistic is greater than the cut-off value of 0.1 and the variance inflation factor (VIF) which is less than the cut-off value of 10, it is concluded that the assumption of collinearity has not been violated. The value of the standardized regression coefficient (Beta) was obtained -0.172 for belief dimension, 0.146 for experience dimension,-0.268 for consequences dimension and -0.182 for practice dimension, showing that the consequences dimension had the greatest impact and the experience dimension had the least impact in predicting the tendency to smoke among male students aged 15 to 18. With regard to the significance level of the obtained t-statistic, the hypothesis of the research is confirmed and we conclude that the dimensions of religiosity can predict the tendency to smoke.

The tendency to smoke is a social problem and a destructive phenomenon that, as with other social deviations, destroys the most valuable assets of the country, i.e. adolescents and young people. The results of data analysis revealed a relationship between religiosity and nicotine addiction among adolescents. These results also showed that adolescents with high levels of religiosity had a comparably lower level of nicotine addiction. This finding can be explained in that, in general, people who have strong religious tendencies have more mental strength in adverse situations, and they evaluate problems as positive and meaningful in most cases, and consequently, they will feel better; as a result, they have higher mental health and are less vulnerable to the stress due to problems.

The purpose of this study was to develop a school-based positive education package and its effectiveness on subjective well-being of sixth grade elementary students. The research method was qualitative-quantitative. First, with the descriptive-analytical method and mixed synthesis research approach, the content validity index for the whole educational package was 0.86, which indicates the appropriate face and content validity. Then, two classes (n= 59) of sixth grade male elementary school students in District 1 of Tehran were selected in a multi-stage random manner and randomly assigned to the experimental group (n= 28) and the control group (n= 30). The quantitative method was quasi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design with a control group using the Renshaw Subjective Well-Being Questionnaire (2014). The results of analysis of covariance showed that the scores of subjective well-being in the experimental group were higher than the control group. Therefore, positive school-based education has a positive effect on students' subjective well-being (P <0.001).

The purpose of this study was to develop a school-based positive education package and determine its effectiveness on the subjective well-being of sixth grade elementary students. The school environment is composed of cognitive, physical and social environment (Marsh, 2004), but current schools pay more attention to the environmental and sometimes physical aspects. One of the problems of schools, along with their other problems, is their industrial form and structure, their mechanical attitude towards students, their indifference to personal experience, and their emphasis on the usefulness of tools and things out of reach. Providing a suitable educational environment for children requires the development of practical and useful educational programs (Mehrmohammadi, et al, 2010).The traditional education approach seeks to create a single environment and look at individual education, while modern education is trying to build a broad environment and social education of knowledge learners (Fetsco, et al, 2005).  Positive psychology approach by changing the paradigm of schools from a traditional perspective that deals with academic problems such as interpersonal problems, dropouts and dropouts; Pays attention to newer attitudes and attention to positive behavioral potentials of students including abilities, human virtues, happiness, moral qualities, behavior and positive thoughts (Shoshani, et al, 2016; Shankland, et al, 2017; Seligman, et al, 2006). The effectiveness of positive psychology interventions has been confirmed in various researches (Badri, et al, 2019; Shoshani, et al, 2017; Dokri, et al, 2014; Waters, 2011).Positive school-based education includes evidence-based programs that improve students' well-being and school-level mental health (Matthew, et al, 2015; Ferguson, 2018; Blake, 2019; White, et al, 2018; ​​Robinson, 2020).The three main hypotheses in this study are: 1. A school-based positive education package can be designed for sixth grade elementary students. 2- The designed training package has a suitable validity for implementation. 3- The educational package has a significant effect on students' subjective well-being.

The research questions are: 1. Can a school-based positive education training package be designed for sixth grade elementary students? 2- Is the designed training package suitable for implementation? 2- Does the educational package have a significant effect on students' mental well-being?First, to explain the conceptual framework of empowerment based on positive school-based education and also to design and develop an educational package, a descriptive-analytical method with a synthetic research approach of mixed synthesis research was used. After reviewing and modifying the program, it was designed and compiled and in order to validate it, the face and content validity method was used. In face validity, semi-structured interviews with subject matter experts were used. In order to determine the content validity ratio (CVR) of the educational package, the Lawshe method was used to convert qualitative judgment into quantity by 14 experts. In determining the effectiveness depending on mental well-being, the present study was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population was the sixth grade elementary school students in District 1 of Tehran in the academic year of 2019-2020. The sample size consisted of 50 people (28 experimental group and 31 control group) who were selected by multi-stage random sampling. First, one of the 22 districts of Tehran was selected as an education district, and then, from the list of boys' primary schools, two schools were selected.The research tool was the Student Mental Well-Being Questionnaire (SSWQ), which was developed by Renshaw in 2014 and has 16 items. The validity coefficient of this tool by the developers using Cronbach's alpha method for the whole test is 0.86 and each of the subscales includes: communication with the school 0.72, enjoyment of learning 0.74, educational goals 0.72 and academic efficiency 0.78 was obtained (Renshaw, et al, 2014).

The research findings based on different stages of synthesis are presented as follows. First, to identify first-hand sources, articles, books, and related documents, limited to the past three decades, were collected using databases and written resource storage centers. Finally, the main themes of the training package and the time required for teaching are derived from written sources such as the Gilant Garmar model of schools (Norrish, et al, 2011), positivism and positivism (Quilliam, 2003; Baratisedeh, et al, 2011), Positive psychology techniques (Magyar-Moei, 2009) and internal and external articles and research projects. The overall content validity index was estimated to be 0.86.In the quantitative part, the collected data were analyzed by SPSS software version 21 using statistical tests. To test the research hypothesis (school-based positive education training package affects the levels of mental well-being including relationship with school, enjoyment of learning, educational goals and academic effectiveness), first the hypotheses of parametric statistics and analysis of covariance were examined. Due to the observance of the basic assumptions of analysis of covariance, including the homogeneity of regression slopes and the homogeneity of interactive effects, multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) and univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were used to test the research hypothesis.To investigate whether the school-based positive education model has a significant effect on the combination of school communication scores, learning pleasure, educational goals and academic efficiency in elementary students or not, Hoteling T statistic (p<0.001, F=31.29, T Hoteling=3.19) showed that there is a significant difference between the groups in relation to school, learning pleasure, educational goals and academic efficiency.The results in Table 1 show that the school-based positive education package focuses on relationship with the school (P<0.0001, F=19.78), learning pleasure (P<0.0001, F=31.11), educational goals (P<0.0001, F=18.81) and academic efficiency (P<0.002, F=10.63) have a significant effect. So the answer to the research question is yes. The results also show that positive school-based education can explain %27 of changes in school communication, %37 of changes in learning pleasure, %26 of changes in educational goals, and %16 of changes in academic efficiency.

Extracted themes, self-awareness, cognition of thoughts, feelings and behavior; Self-confidence, optimism and self-esteem; Thinking positive; The importance of emotions and positive thoughts in education; Resilience and problem-solving methods; Hope, appreciation and gratitude; Purposefulness and having meaning in life; Empathy and forgiveness; Social responsibility and positive interpersonal communication; Cultivation of moral values, secretarial abilities and immersion. The results showed that the school-based positive education package has a positive and significant effect on students' mental well-being. The variables of degree, gender and geographical location have been controlled in this study, so care should be taken in generalizing the results.Considering the validity of the positive education package, it is suggested that school counselors, while paying attention to students' psychological issues, also take action to recognize their psychological abilities. It is better to teach the concepts of positive psychology to both students and parents.

This study aimed to investigate the outcomes of life skills training on the mental health of elementary school children. This qualitative theoretical study recruited 26 curriculum planning graduates and elementary school principals and teachers in Bushehr Province, Iran selected via purposive sampling (snowball method). Data were collected through semi-structured interviews until reaching theoretical saturation. The validity and reliability of the research tools and collected data were confirmed through Holsti’s method and the Lincoln and Guba model. The core categories and subcategories extracted after analyzing the data were successful decision-maker (outcome of developing cognitive skills), rationality in all life matters (outcome of developing intellectual skills), useful family member - a competent global citizen (outcome of developing communication skills), and choosing the optimal lifestyle (outcome of developing emotional skills). According to our findings, “teaching life skills through the curriculum” ensures the mental health of elementary school children.

Improving individuals’ health indicates dynamism and progress in societies in today’s everchanging world (Mozata and Thomas, 2019). The rate of social changes and the expansion of mechanical life endanger the mental health of human society, and according to Orvati Aziz (2016), many people lack the necessary skills to face various life issues. As such, the World Health Organization presented a life skills training program to improve mental health and prevent psychosocial harm in children and adolescents (Shafiei et al., 2010).According to a UNICEF declaration (2015), teaching skills such as effective communication with others, self-awareness, decision-making, problem-solving thinking, critical thinking, and creative thinking guarantees people’s health. The WHO (2020) has also identified life skills training as the most cost-effective way to achieve physical and mental health.Most children receive formal education in the education system from the age of six. Adibmanesh and Sadr (2021) believe that elementary school is the period for a life skill training course and has a positive effect on the development of healthy personality and mental health of children. Jim (2021) believes that such a course has an effective role in establishing healthy relations with family members and peers, developing social relations, and improving their quality of life.At present, Iranian elementary schools enjoy an extracurricular course for life skills training called “Keramat (dignity) plan”. However, according to the interviewees, it depends mostly on the teachers’ tastes and has not yielded the desired result. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of life skills training through the curriculum on the mental health of elementary school children.

This was a theoretical qualitative study based on the systematic theoretical approach, which has many applications in education. The study population included graduates of educational sciences (especially curriculum planning) who were serving as administrative experts, principals, and teachers in the elementary schools of Bushehr Province, of whom 26 were selected using purposive sampling (snowball method). Data were collected through raising the research question of “What are the effects of teaching life skills to elementary school children through the curriculum on their mental health?”. The study continued through semi-structured interviews until reaching theoretical saturation. Reaching theoretical saturation in qualitative research is considered the gold standard for ending sampling (Strauss & Corbin, 2014). Data were analyzed according to the systematic grounded theory in three coding stages as follows. In the open coding stage, all recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and compared using a line-by-line analytical-comparative approach, and related concepts were tabulated. In the axial coding stage, concepts related to one axis were grouped together to form main categories and subcategories. In the selective coding stage, the final theory was developed based on the main categories. The validity and reliability of the research tool and data analysis were assessed according to Holsti’s method (observed agreement percentage) and based on the Lincoln and Guba evaluation model (1994) including four criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

The research findings based on the main categories and subcategories are as follows:A) “Successful decision maker” with the subcategory of “developing cognitive skills” including components of:Self-awareness skill: Being aware of your feelings and emotions, developing self-confidence and self-esteem, recognizing weaknesses and strengths, and developing knowledge of self and others.Decision making skill: Independence in decision making; ability to lead a team; successful in choosing a job, a friend, or a spouse; participating in group decision-making and humanitarian activities, and judgment based on reason.B) “Rationality in all life matters” with the subcategory of “Development of intellectual skills” with the components of:Creative thinking skill: Optimal use of potential abilities, smart look at the world, fostering a spirit of exploration and healthy competition, creating new ideas, and acquiring self-employment skills and financial independence.Problem-solving thinking skill: Faith in one’s abilities, optimal use of intellectual powers, finding the roots of problems, choosing the best solution among the available options, and getting help from experts.Critical thinking skill: Fostering a spirit of logical reasoning and being demanding, avoiding hasty judgment, ability to hear dissenting opinions, avoiding verbal violence, respecting different cultures, and saying no to tempting offers.C) “Useful family member - a competent global citizen” with the subcategory of “Developing communication skills” including components of:Interpersonal communication skill: Understanding the feelings of oneself and others, healthy communication with others, successful in family life, active presence in social groups, and healthy verbal and nonverbal communication in socializing with others.Effective communication with others skill: Pioneer in developing friendships and intimate relations, future career success, respect for different cultures and races, and observing privacy in communication.Empathy skill: Understanding the feelings and emotions of others, keeping secrets, boosting self-confidence in others, gaining the trust and empathy of others, and developing a human character.D) “Choosing the optimal lifestyle” with the subcategory of “Developing emotional skills” including components of:Stress management: Identifying and modulating stressors, strengthening the spirit of positive thinking, time management, and avoiding inappropriate ambitions.Emotion management: Recognizing and moderating different emotions in different situations; understanding the impact of emotions on health; reasonable acceptance and coping with failures and sorrows; making wise decisions in emotional situations; preventing emotional diseases; avoiding resentment, jealousy, and hatred; fostering emotional intelligence toward transcendence, and enjoying life.

he most important achievement of this research was the effective role of “training and learning” in ensuring people’s health, which is consistent with the research by Jim (2021), Nashida et al. (2019), Albert & Davia (2011), and Adibmanesh & Sadr (1400). The “successful decision-maker”, the outcome of learning self-awareness and decision-making skills, was in line with the views of Khanifar & Pourhosseini (2017) and the research of Nashida et al. (2019). The “Rationality in all matters of life”, the outcome of acquiring skills of creative thinking, problem-solving thinking and critical thinking, was consistent with the research by Butwin & Kanter (2000) and a UNICEF Declaration (2015). “The useful family member - a competent global citizen”, the outcome of acquiring skills of interpersonal communication, effective communication with others and empathy, was consistent with the results of research by Sinclair et al. (2008) and Javadipour et al. (2014). “Choosing the optimal lifestyle”, the outcome of acquiring stress management and emotion management skills, was consistent with the research by Hojjati et al. (2021) and the views of Gelman (2016). Also, the necessity of teaching life skills from elementary school was in accordance with the results of the research by Gholami & Javdani (2010) and Orvati Aziz (2010).

The objective of the present study was to determine the effectiveness of resilience-based training for mothers on reducing parenting stress and promoting resilience of 4-6 year-old children. This study was a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest design. In this study, using convenience sampling method, 24 mothers with 4-6 year-old children in Meybod, who were studying at Nobahar Preschool Center during 2019-2020 were selected and randomly divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group underwent children resilience training program for nine sessions of 90 minutes and the control group received no intervention. The participants in both groups completed Parenting Stress Index and Child and Adolescent Resilience Scale before and one week after the intervention. The results showed that resilience training for parents significantly reduced parenting stress and increased children's resilience.

Children comprise a major portion of the world's population. According to the latest report of the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) in 2020, there are about 1.9 billion children in the world, making 27% of the world's population. Hence, addressing their mental health helps them be mentally and physically healthy, and play their social role better (Hayden and Mash, 2014). Among the factors affecting child development, family is the first and most enduring element, which in almost all societies is considered a constructive factor and the cornerstone for development of the child's personality and future behaviors (Amiri and Kalkian, 2012). Among family members, mothers are the first person to build a close relationship with children, not only during the fetal period, but also after that. Due to the central role of mothers in the psychological and emotional development of children, mother’s mental health is one of the most fundamental factors that shape child's personality (Diaz, 2005). Parenting stress which most mothers experience in several areas of life related to parenting is the result of a perceived mismatch between parental demand and individual resources (Rabiee-Kenari et al., 2014). Such stress has not only negative impacts on maternal health, but also destructive effects on the child (Hughes et al., 2015). Resilience-based training is one of the important interventions to improve mothers’ mental health and reduce their stress (Shahriarimanesh et al., 2020). Studies have shown the effectiveness of resilience training for mothers on increasing psychological well-being and reducing maternal parenting stress (Halstead et al., 2018; Kaboudi et al., 2018; Ambrosio et al., 2021; Chitra et al., 2018; Tabatabaei et al., 2020). In addition, different theoretical models support resilience training for parents, especially mothers (McCobin, 1996; quoted by Sixbey, 2005; Tommy et al., 2012; Henry et al., 2015). However, in today's stressful life, no child is safe from stress and even children who are not exposed to stress experience pressures and expectations (Arianfar et al., 2016). Therefore, the importance of raising resilient children becomes clearer than ever. Hence, the objective of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of resilience training for mothers with 4-6 year-old children on promoting and nurturing children's resilience and reducing parenting stress.

This study used a quasi-experimental design with pretest-posttest and a control group. The statistical population included all mothers with 4-6 year-old children in Meybod during 2019-2020. The sample consisted of 24 mothers whose children were studying at Nobahar Preschool Center. These mothers were selected by convenience sampling method and randomly divided into experimental and control groups. The participants first completed the Parenting Stress Index (PSI) (Abidin, 1983) and the Child and Adolescent Resilience Scale (Angar and Liebenberg, 2011). Then, the experimental group received a training program for promoting and developing children's resilience in nine sessions of 90 minutes, but the control group did not. One week after the last session, the same scales were given to the participants of both groups again. Data were analyzed with descriptive (frequency, mean and standard deviation) and inferential (multivariate analysis of covariance) statistical methods.

Table 1 shows a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of the variables of parenting stress (F = 27.25, P<0.01) and children’s resilience (F = 37.21, P<0.01) in the post-test. In other words, resilience-based training reduced parenting stress and increased children's resilience, and the effect of the intervention on parenting stress and children's resilience was 0.44 and 0.69, respectively. This finding means that 44% and 69% of the changes in the variables of parenting stress and children's resilience were explained by group membership (resilience-based training), respectively.

The study results showed that resilience training for mothers was effective on reducing parenting stress. In other words, resilience-based training approach helps mothers become aware of their individual characteristics and abilities, use resilience as an internal resilient factor, and increase their power by learning problem-solving, and help their child act more effectively in the face of adverse conditions (Hosseini Ghomi and Jahanbakhshi, 2021). Also, the study results showed that resilience training for mothers was effective on increasing children's resilience. Resilience training can lead to the strengthening of abilities such as managing negative emotions, problem solving, and constructive thinking in mothers, which improves the parent-child relationship, and mothers encourage their children to do their favorite hobbies and activities, help improve self-efficacy and self-confidence, and finally promote and nurture their children's resilience (Fogarty et al., 2019). The limitations of the present study included recruiting only mothers and its cross-sectional nature. Therefore, it is suggested to conduct longitudinal studies to investigate if the effectiveness of this program sustains. It is also suggested to conduct studies on fathers and compare the results with the present study results. In addition, it is suggested that relevant counselors and specialists use intervention programs to increase parental resilience at schools, especially in regions that lack professional facilities and counselors.

Executive functions are a set of higher order cognitive processes that manifest in purposeful behaviors and are widely used in everyday activities. These skills significantly develop in childhood, especially during preschool years. Therefore, their accurate recognition at this stage of life is really important. This review study was conducted with the aim to investigate the concept of executive functions with a focus on preschool ages. To this end, related theories, assessment tools, and their developmental characteristics in childhood were collected. For this descriptive study, we selected and reviewed 3939 English papers related to executive functions in the Scopus database. Our findings revealed two general views on executive functions. Furthermore, researchers agree on the importance of the formation and development of these cognitive processes in childhood.

Childhood is called the golden age of one’s life. Researchers believe that one of the components that emerge in early childhood and develops rapidly in the preschool years is executive functions (EFs) (Zelazo & Carlson, 2012; Serpel & Esposito, 2016). EFs are high-level cognitive processes such as reasoning, problem solving, and planning that are used to voluntarily control thought and action. This cognitive capacity grows slowly during childhood, peaks in adulthood, and declines in middle age (Overton & Lerner, 2010; Zelazo & Carlson, 2012). Attention to EFs during childhood and its outcomes for children’s preparation for school, adaptation to school, and future educational success has been extensively researched, which emphasizes the importance of this influential cognitive component more than ever. Also, because of the emphasis on the importance of measuring EFs in children for diagnosing childhood disorders and subsequent adult problems (Carlson, 2005) and that the development of these skills is influenced by the environment (Serpel & Esposito, 2016; Carlson, 2005), one can take a step toward children’s greater success by measuring EFs in preschool ages, promoting them, and enriching activities appropriate for these years.The importance of accurate recognition of this basic cognitive component and the dramatic and increasing growth of various related research raised the need for a comprehensive study of this concept. Furthermore, there is a lack of accurate introduction and a coherent review of theories related to EFs among domestic research on EFs, especially in the early years of life, which is one of the most effective and golden periods for EFs. Therefore, this study sought to review the research on EFs and introduce this concept to better understand it in preschool age, and to answer these questions: What are the theories in this area? What tools are there to measure EFs? How does this cognitive component develop during childhood?

This was a descriptive survey study. The statistical population comprised English papers on EFs. The keyword of “executive function*” was searched for in the Scopus database in the title of articles and the results were limited to the field of psychology. Of the 3939 articles found, those which received the most citations or were more recent, directly related to the study objectives, and focused on preschool were selected for analysis in the review study. 

The nature of EFs is controversial. Some believe in the unity of EF processing, while others argue for its dissociated components. In general, there are two developmental views on the EF framework.Representational modelsIn this view, EF is considered a unified structure. Theorists in this group include Vygotsky, Zelazo, and Munakata. At the beginning of the emergence of executive functions, there was an agreement on the unity of its structure; but over time, theorists have come up with a different form of this fact through various studies.Componential modelThe second theoretical approach related to EF emphasizes its separate processes. Working memory, response control/inhibition, and cognitive flexibility are listed as the three cores of EF (Diamond, 2006; Miyake et al., 2000). Baddely (1986) defines working memory as a system that temporarily stores and manipulates information during cognitive activities such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning. Response inhibition includes the ability to control one’s attention, behavior, thoughts, and feelings to overcome an inner desire or external temptation that leads to doing what is necessary or appropriate (Overton & Lerner, 2010; Diamond, 2013; Serpel & Esposito, 2016; Miyake et al., 2000). Cognitive flexibility is the third component of executive functions, which means the ability to switch between tasks or mental sets (Diamond, 2013; Serpel & Esposito, 2016).Major age-related changes in executive functions occur between the ages of 3 and 5 years, with several activities defined to measure its various dimensions. Performance-based tasks and rating scales are the two main categories of these activities. In general, theories suggest EF development as an increase in conflict resolution capabilities (Overton & Lerner, 2010; Best and Miller, 2010). This conflict is either between hierarchical rules (Zelazo et al., 2003), between latent and active representations (Munakata, 2001), or between current representations and preset mental behaviors (Diamond, 2006), and they often emphasize the underlying role of neural network change. 

EFs help keep information specific to an issue active in the working memory, ignore misleading data, and inhibit responses that hinder work-related goals. EF skills are activated in complex or new activities because they require the application of new strategies and monitoring their effectiveness, while simple or routine activities are performed instinctively without activating executive processes. This study had some limitations, including the fact that addressing all theories and aspects of EF in a review article is really difficult given the extensive number of studies. Thus some theories or aspects related to EF could have been addressed insufficiently or could have been overlooked. It can be said that this research has provided useful and practical information for future research on EFs, especially in preschool age. Given the lack of related review studies, the present review provides a basis for progression in this field. It is recommended that further studies examine other theories, including neuroscience EF-related papers. It is necessary for educators, teachers, and those involved in educational settings to be aware of this important cognitive ability and to consider the requirements for strengthening EF components, to provide a rich environment to promote this higher order cognitive ability leading to the more academic and social success of children.

This study aimed to compare the levels of critical thinking based on decision making styles and behavioral brain systems through a causal comparative study. The research population consists of all students of the master's degree in psychology in Allameh Tabataba'i University in the second semester of 2017-18. A sample of 117 men and women was selected by convenience sampling. Then, Critical Thinking Questionnaire, Behavioral Brain System Scale and Decision-Making Styles Questionnaire were completed. The results of ANOVA and independent t-test revealed a significant difference between critical thinking of the two modes of behavioral brain system. In terms of decision-making styles, critical thinking did not show significant differences between individuals with rational and intuitive styles. Therefore, it can be concluded that individual characteristics, particularly the type of decision-making style and type of brain-behavioral system, can affect critical thinking. Critical thinking involves the conceptualization, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of information obtained through observation, experience, reasoning, or communication (Porter, 2018; Ulger, 2018). A lack of critical thinking can lead to rigid thinking; therefore, it is necessary to understand the nature and function of critical thinking and its development in the academic community in a comprehensive and accurate manner (Aihua, 2017). Furthermore, to assess each situation, individuals need decision-making skills to choose the most desirable solution from two or more strategies to achieve a specific goal (Lombardi et al., 2017). In this regard, studies have reported a significant relationship between decision-making styles and critical thinking (Kashaninia, Hosseini, and Yusliani, 2016; Zare and Nahravanian, 2017). We can explain this difference in decision-making styles by the personality traits of individuals and the way they deal with problems (Urieta et al., 2022).The theory of "reinforcement sensitivity" is one of the theories proposed to explain differences among individuals due to their sensitivity in the two basic systems of behavioral activation and behavioral inhibition in the brain (Sommer, van der Molen, and De Pascalis, 2016). The relationships among these variables have been examined. Meanwhile, researchers have not studied a person's critical thinking in terms of both decision-making style and brain-behavioral system. In addition, previous research has been conducted in the nursing students, and have reported conflicting results. Brain-behavioral systems and decision-making styles affect how one responds to the environment, while critical thinking is affected by the judgmental nature of mental health domains. Therefore, studying this issue in psychology students who need clinical judgment for their professional requirements is essential. To this end, the present study addresses the question: "Is critical thinking different among psychology students with different decision-making styles and behavioral brain systems?" The statistical population of this causal-comparative study included Master’s of Psychology students (all majors) of Allameh Tabataba'i University in the second semester of 2017-18. The statistical sample included 117 people who met the inclusion criteria. We used the following tools to measure the variables considered in the present study:California Critical Thinking Skills Test: This test has 34 multiple-choice questions, including 20 questions with four options and 14 questions with five options. Scores range from zero to 34. We obtained the reliability of the test using the Kuder-Richardson coefficient from 0.68 to 0.70. Mehrinejad (2007) reported the reliability of the adapted form of the test as 0.78 using the half-split method and as 0.83 using the Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the whole test. Cronbach's alpha in this study was 0.79.Scott and Bruce Decision-Making Styles Questionnaire: This tool has 25 items designed as a five-point Likert scale. The score in this questionnaire ranges from 25 to 125. Scott and Bruce (1995) reported the reliability coefficient of this questionnaire for each of the subscales using Cronbach's alpha as 0.85 for rational style, 0.84 for intuitive style, 0.86 for dependency style, 0.94 for instant style, and 0.87 for avoidance style. In their study, Zarea and Arab Sheibani (2010) also calculated the reliability of this tool using Cronbach's alpha for each of the subscales as 0.77  for rational style, 0.78 for intuitive style, 0.76 for dependence style, 0.86  for instant style, and 0.83 for avoidance style. In the present study, Cronbach's alpha was 0.82.Behavioral Inhibition / Activation Systems Questionnaire: This questionnaire has 24 items, four of which do not affect scoring. As a result, the main form of this scale has 20 questions, which consists of two general factors of inhibition (7 questions) and activation (13 questions). Mohammadi (2008) reported psychometric properties of the Persian version of this scale in Iran among a sample of students from Shiraz. He also reported the validity as 0.68 for the activation subscale (BAS) and 0.71 for the inhibition subscale (BIS). We obtained its Cronbach's alpha as 0.84.We used statistics such as frequency, mean, standard deviation, independent t-test and ANOVA to describe the data. A total of 117 students (77 females and 40 males) with a mean age of 25.29 ± 3.93 years for males and 26.15 ± 2.85 years for females.According to Table 1, BAS dimension scored higher than BIS dimension, the rational and intuitive styles had the highest mean, and the instantaneous and avoidant styles had the lowest mean. Then, we used the independent t-test to measure the difference in critical thinking of individuals in terms of the subscales of brain-behavioral system and gender. The results show that critical thinking was significantly different between the two brain-behavioral subscales (t = 3.84; p < 0.001), and critical thinking had a higher mean on the BAS subscale. In addition, critical thinking was different between the two sexes (t = -2.39; p <0.01), and the mean scores were higher in men than those in women.The difference between critical thinking of individuals and different decision-making styles was investigated using one-way ANOVA, which revealed a significant difference between the groups (t = 97.63; p <0.01). In addition, Tukey’s post hoc test in Table 2 shows the differences between the groups.Tukey's test showed a significant difference between rational style and all styles except intuitive style. There was also a significant difference in critical thinking between the intuitive and other decision-making styles, i.e., dependent, instantaneous and avoidant (p <0.001). On the other hand, the dependent style significantly differs from the instantaneous style, but it is not significantly different from the avoidant style (p> 0.07). In addition, this difference was significant between avoidant and instantaneous styles (p <0.001). In general, the present study showed that underlying characteristics such as decision-making style and arousal of inhibitory or activating behavioral areas in the brain play a role in developing critical thinking. Another significant result of this study is that individuals with critical thinking skills can achieve higher scores with rational and intuitive decision-making styles. This result proves that we can use the tacit readiness by emphasizing individual differences for effective action in the critical challenges and use the available tools and facilities to the best of their ability if we select the right people for the job. We can also conclude that psychologists should be selected clinical work from among those with higher critical thinking or a more favorable background Fatigue due to completing the questionnaires and the impossibility of conducting the test were the limitations of this study. Further studies are recommended to focus on the effects of mental states and situational effects such as situational anxiety.

This study aimed to differentiate students with high and low academic procrastination based on the sense of school connectedness and cognitive flexibility components. The research method was causal-comparative. The statistical population included all male and female high school students in Khaf city, among whom 368 individuals were selected by cluster sampling. Cognitive Flexibility Inventory, Students’ Sense of Connectedness with School Scale, and Procrastination Assessment Scale were used to collect data. Data were analyzed using SPSS-24 software and discriminant analysis. The findings showed that the obtained discriminant function was significant and the components of teacher support, controllability perception, and scientific distribution had the highest differentiation power (p <0.01). The results of the discriminant analysis showed that according to the obtained function, 88.8% of students in the two groups were correctly reclassified which indicates the ability of these components to differentiate students at different levels of academic procrastination.

Studies show that procrastination is one of the common experiences of human beings and includes different types, among which academic procrastination is the most common. Academic procrastination is a purposeful and unnecessary delay doing academic tasks (Hen and Goroshit, 2020). According to the existing literature, many students suffer from procrastination in their academic life.Various studies in the domain of cognitive approaches have introduced cognitive flexibility as a cognitive variable related to students' procrastination (Schommer-Aikins and Easter, 2018; Emamverdi and Taher, 2020). Cognitive flexibility is an important aspect of executive function and refers to the ability to adapt behaviors in response to environmental changes (Durairaja and Fendt, 2021). Meanwhile the lack of cognitive flexibility leads to passive reaction to the environment and delays in doing things (Sternberg and Frensch, 1992). Among other factors affecting academic procrastination, the sense of school connectedness affects students' procrastination because school as a productive environment can create a sense of belonging in students and this feeling helps students demonstrate better time management for their homework (Çıkrıkçı & Erzen, 2020).The prevalence of academic procrastination indicates the need for further research to identify potential factors that lead to academic procrastination, and subsequently consider appropriate strategies to reduce procrastination (Zhou, et al., 2021). Therefore, the present study seeks to answer the question of whether the components of sense of school connectedness and cognitive flexibility can differentiate students with high and low procrastination.

This causal-comparative study aimed to differentiate students with high and low academic procrastination based on the components of sense of school connectedness and cognitive flexibility. The statistical population of the study included male and female high school students in Khaf city in the academic year 2021-2022. Among them, 368 were selected by cluster sampling according to Krejcie and Morgan's table. Based on the academic procrastination scores, 95 students with scores lower than the first quartile were selected as students with low academic procrastination, and 92 students with scores higher than the third quartile were selected as students with high academic procrastination. Finally, data from these 187 individuals was analyzed by discriminant analysis.Procrastination assessment scale - student version (PASS): Academic procrastination was assessed by the Solomon and Rothblum (1984) Procrastination Assessment Scale, which includes 27 items and three components: preparation for exams, homework preparation, and essay preparation. In this study, Cronbach's alpha for the whole scale was 0.87.Students’ sense of connectedness with school (SSCS): This scale was designed by Brew et al. ( 2004) and consists of 27 items and six subscales of teacher support, participation in the community, respect and fairness in school, positive feeling about school, belonging to school, and scientific contribution. In this study, the reliability was obtained as 0.89 through Cronbach's alpha for the whole scale.Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI): This questionnaire was designed by Dennis and Vander Wal (2010) and consists of 20 items and three subscales of perception of controllability, perception of different options, and perception of behavior justification. The Cronbach's alpha for the whole scale in the present study was 0.89.

Using histogram plot and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test showed that the distribution of predictor variables was normal. The results of multivariate outlier data using Mahalanobis distance showed that there were ten real outlier data; therefore, this data was deleted before the analysis. In order to evaluate the homogeneity of the variance-covariance matrix, the Mbox test was used and showed the homogeneity of the variance-covariance matrix of the predictor variables within the groups (Mbox statistic = 6.77, F = 2.23, P> 0.05). Also, the results of the Pearson correlation coefficient matrix and statistical indices of variance inflation factor and tolerance index showed that there were no significant correlations among the predictor variables and the assumption of non-collinearity was confirmed.Table 1 presents the mean and standard deviation of the components of predictor variables for two groups of students with high and low academic procrastination and t-test results to examine the significance of the difference in means between the two groups. A significant difference was observed between the two groups in terms of the components except perception of behavior justification.Table 5 presents the results of classifying students in groups with high and low academic procrastination based on the obtained discriminant function. Accordingly, 83 students (87.4%) with low academic procrastination and 83 students (90.2%) with high academic procrastination were identified. Also, in total, about 88.8% of the students were correctly regrouped in their primary group, which showed the ability of the components of the variables of school connectedness and cognitive flexibility in differentiating between students with high and low academic procrastination.

Our findings showed that the components of the sense of school connectedness were able to significantly differentiate students with high and low academic procrastination. This finding can be explained in that as students' sense of school belonging and attachment decreases, they will be more likely to find excuses to reduce their willingness to complete homework and academic activities. Among other findings of this study was that the components of cognitive flexibility, except the component of perception of behavior justification, were able to significantly differentiate students with high and low academic procrastination. In fact, students with high cognitive flexibility use more effective and useful methods when faced with various stresses; it appears delaying homework is not one of the effective strategies and methods for such students.The lack of gender separation in this study limits the generalizability of findings. It is suggested that future studies examine the relationship of academic procrastination with cognitive flexibility and the sense of school connectedness regarding gender factor. Given the results, it is suggested that researchers evaluate the effectiveness of various programs and plans to improve the sense of school connectedness and cognitive flexibility.

The aim of this study was to present decentralization strategies in the Iranian education system by identifying weaknesses, strengths, opportunities and threats to decentralization through "SWOT" matrix. Preliminary data for identifying internal and external factors influencing the way education is administered were obtained through semi-structured interviews with 25 experts and senior and middle managers of education. Analysis of the interview transcripts led to the emergence of sixteen internal factors and eighteen external factors. Results were sent to the participants for validation and rating. The sum of the final weighting coefficients in both internal and external domains shows that the current status of education and its strategies are not effective enough to reduce weaknesses and threats or exploit strengths and opportunities. Comparison of factors in the analytical matrix led to the emergence of thirteen strategies in competitive, aggressive, defensive and conservative domains. These strategies can use opportunities and strengths to control threats and weaknesses and facilitate the effective implementation of decentralization schemes.

Iran enjoys diverse climates, economic and social conditions and subcultures. Therefore, residents of each region have different educational needs. Meanwhile, Iran's education system has a completely centralized structure which offers the same educational programs and lessons throughout the country. Education plays an important role in the development process. Therefore, there is an urgent need for internal development of this institution on which all aspects of development depend. A large organization such as education department with so many problems in planning, organization, coordination, supervision and leadership, a school-based management should be developed and applied (Jafari, 2021). Furthermore, centralized management of education in Iran has reduced the inefficiency and effectiveness of schools. Therefore, experts have emphasized the need for revising and transforming education system in line with decentralization and delegation of authority (Jafari Moghadam & Fani, 2002). Many administrators and experts acknowledge the inefficiency of the current centralized structure, emphasize the need for decentralization of the Iranian education system, and mention concentration as the cause of many problems in Iran's education system (Farhadi Rad et al., 2019). Another study also confirms the necessity of revising the centralized educational system of a country with the climatic, cultural, social and economic characteristics of Iran (Quak, 2020; EASNIE, 2017). Therefore, the main objective of this research is to identify and introduce strategies that can use internal organizational strengths and environmental opportunities to manage the weaknesses and threats in the direction of decentralization in Iran's education system.

This research is a qualitative study based on grounded theory. The data collection tool was a semi-structured interviews. The data recorded in the interview process was coded based on the SWOT model to identify and extract internal factors (weaknesses and strengths) and external factors (opportunities and threats). For this purpose, the internal strengths and weaknesses of education and environmental opportunities and threats that can hinder or facilitate decentralization were identified and coded based on the experiences and studies of the participants.The target population in this research included senior high and middle managers of education after the Islamic Revolution, who had more management experience, and experts with studies related to education. Purposive sampling was used to select 15 managers with the most managerial records in education and 10 experts. Despite achieving theoretical saturation by 14 interviews, eight other managers and experts were also interviewed online in order to strengthen the validity of the data. The identified factors resulting from open coding, which were approved by the participants, were classified during axial coding under the categories of strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities, and validated through member check and external check. The weighted score of the factors was calculated based on the opinion of the participants. Four strategies were identified in the final matrix and prioritized based on the quantitative strategic planning matrix (QSPM).

According to the opinions, experiences and studies of the participants, the weaknesses and threats were experienced far more than the strengths and opportunities. In this analysis, ten threats and ten weaknesses were identified. Meanwhile, six internal organizational strengths and eight environmental opportunities were identified, which were approved by the participants and supervising experts. The final score in both internal and external domains was less than 2.5, which shows that the current strategies have not been effective in dealing with the existing factors. The set of internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) and external factors (opportunities and threats) identified are reflected in Table 1.SWOT matrix analysis also led to the identification of three aggressive strategies, four competitive strategies, three defensive strategies and three conservative strategies. The matrix for determining the four strategies is shown in Table 2.The output of QSPM shows that the strategy of "gradual increase in the powers of provincial, district and school councils" with a score of 3.37 is the first priority and the strategy of "empowering human resources" with a score of 2.22, is the last priority. We are providing solutions for each of the identified strategies. These solutions were identified in the process of coding the interview transcripts, based on the participants’ opinions. Some of the most important solutions include continuous communication with the members of the parliament (MPs) and inviting them to participate in the meetings of the educational councils, compiling local plans in line with the reform document with the participation of managers, teachers and experts in each region, developing and strengthening agricultural, technical and vocational schools in local fields of study, forming scientific associations, gradual delegation of parts of the responsibility of monitoring educational content and quality to related associations, designing and implementing programs to acquaint local students with common cultural roots, facilitating the establishment of schools affiliated to the public and private sectors, presenting incentive schemes for the transfer of headquarters forces to districts and schools, forming the Strategic Council for Education Reforms with the presence of representatives of the legislative, judicial, executive and influential institutions and creating communication networks between scientific associations and regional councils.

Experts and even education managers agree on the problems of the ineffectiveness of the current centralized structure of education and the necessity of its reform and decentralization. This structure does not respond to individual and social needs and environmental changes, and it should be modified according to the current conditions. However, factors inside and outside the system have always prevented reform and decentralization. Some of these factors are caused by the centralized structure of the political system and some are due to the resistance of powerful groups who prevent decentralization in order to protect their interests. The application of strategies such as "formation of the Strategic Council of Reforms" and "establishing continuous communication with political managers and MPs" to gain the support of political and legislative power institutions, facilitates the implementation of decentralization. Under the support of these institutions, it is possible to gradually delegate the authority of decision-making and planning according to local conditions and needs to provinces, regions and schools.

The present study aimed to investigate the status of environmental education in preschool from the perspective of Bukan city educators. This was a qualitative study and its method was phenomenological. The study population included all preschool educators in Bukan city. The participants (n=11) were selected through sequential purposive sampling method. The data collection tool was semi-structured interviews. Findings show that  the current status of environmental education in preschool is not appropriate. Furthermore, the participants emphasized the following points: cognitive, emotional and practical domains with regard to the goals of environmental education, adaptation to the developmental period of preschool children and observing the principles governing the selection and organization of content in terms of content, interactive, active, indirect and technological methods with regard to teaching-learning methods, observational, direct and cognitive methods in terms of assessment methods, observing the principle of coordination with emotional needs and designing a naturalistic educational space in terms of educational space, and paying attention to the diversity and appropriateness of resources and tools in terms of learning resources and tools. Generally, this study indicates that a novel comprehensive scientific approach should be used in all its dimensions in order to improve environmental education in preschool. The world has reached a point where environmentalists call it a state of "excessive pressure and collapse" (Mokhtari, Abdollahi and Sadeghi, 2014); that is, the ecology of nature is gradually being destroyed, and finally the environment of our planet is under severe pressure from various directions. Undoubtedly, one of the most important strategies to protect the environment and prevent its destruction and pollution is to raise individual’s awareness and insight through educational activities (Oglu, Sahin and Baslar, 2013). As such, environmental education aims to raise individual’s environmental awareness to preserve the environment on a local, regional and global scale. It also creates and promotes individual’s sensitivity to events and changes in nature (Abedi, Friendpour and Asadipour, 2018).In order to implement environmental education, human groups must first be taught. Beddoe, Costanza, Farley, Garza, Kent, Kubiszewski & Woodward (2009) refer to school teachings. Schools are social institutions where students learn in the heart of the community, and consequently, increase their ability to experience directly in the future (Saylan & Blumstein, 2011).Proper planning and environmental education prepares students to enter society, make the right decisions for the environment, and provide a strategy for awareness, knowledge and skills needed to understand and recognize the importance of nature (Shobayri, 2016). Environmental education has always been a hot topic in all societies. Research shows that not only the sense of responsibility created and environmental education in childhood guide social and environmental behavior in adolescence and adulthood, but also they are the essential prerequisites  of desirable or undesirable environmental behaviors, namely environmental problems (Hastings, Zahn-Waxler, Robinson, Usher, & Bridges, 2000). The environmental education curriculum has received a great deal of attention since the early 1960s, and has undergone a child-centric transformation. This new trend has caused the content of lessons and learning materials to be based on the child environment (Karimi, Kian & Askari, 2017). Nonetheless, the environmental education curriculum in Iran faces considerable doubts and deficiencies. The study of textbooks in Iran indicates the lack of a coherent program and the lack of balanced attention to environmental concepts. Most of the weaknesses can be attributed to the inadequacy and inefficiency of the existing curriculum in the field of environment, failure to address the importance of environmental issues and educating generations regarding these issues. In addition, there is a general dissatisfaction with the current status of the curriculum elements, including objectives, content, teaching methods, learning activities, learning space and assessment (Karimi et al., 2017).Yaghoubi and Mansoori (2010); Salehi, Pazokinejad and Emamgholi (2014);; Izadi (2015); Sadat nejad (2015); Karimi et al. (2017), andAbedi et al. (2018 examined the role of environmental education at different stages and revealed its positive and significant effects on people's attitudes toward the environment. Research in other countries also indicate the positive effects of environment on people's attitudes and behaviors. For example, Williams (2011), Demrell, Howe, and Milner-Guland (2013) and Crawford, Luke, and Van Pellet (2015) showed that increased participation in environmental-based nature education leads to superior ecological behavior, and promotes through environmental knowledge and communication with nature.The foundations of knowledge, skills and attitudes are formed from the preschool period and their importance is crystal clear (Mirdamadi, Bagheri Varkaneh and Ismaili, 2010). Therefore, it is necessary to address any educational transformation and innovation from the early years of childhood and to plan for childhood and beyond on a strong foundation. Given that many environmental threats, destructions and pollutions result from human behavior, these issues can be reduced only if human behavior changes, which is possible through awareness and knowledge. This is a qualitative phenomenological study, which means the meaning of a phenomenon is discovered from the perspective of relevant informants. Furthermore, Bukan preschool educators have gained life experiences regarding the state of environmental education in preschool children. The population of this study included all preschool teachers in Bukan because they were accessible and that they had the lived experiences that could help us examine the status of environmental education in preschool. The participants were selected by purposive sampling until reaching theoretical saturation with 11 individuals The data collection tool was semi-structured interviews. Interpretive analysis was used to analyze the data throughopen, axial and selective coding. The results of analyzing the interviews on the current status of environmental education in preschool are classified in the selective code of negligence of the Education Office regarding environmental education in preschool and the central code of unfavorable environmental education in preschool. Accordingly, the current status of environmental education is no appropriate in preschool educators’ opinion. "The current status is not suitable for environmental education," said one interviewee. Another interviewee said: "I think education should pay special attention to these centers so that the situation becomes favorable for children and educators." "The current status of environmental education is not nice," said another interviewee. The interview findings on the current status of environmental education in preschool were obtained in the selective code of negligence of the Education Office regarding environmental education. These results are consistent with the research of Sadat Nejad (2015) as he reported that students' knowledge about general and specific environmental issues is low.Research suggestions: Planners and policy makers in the field of education should take environmental education seriously in all educational levels, especially in the preschool period, 2. Educators should encourage children to take part in practical environmental education activities (conducting experiments, role-playing, field trips, etc.). 3. Educators should use active methods to teach children environmental concepts and issues.

The present study was designed to identify the pedagogical beliefs of teachers and to explore the role of their beliefs in teaching practices and the math performance of their students. Data from 220 math teachers and 5890 students in the eighth grade were analyzed by a secondary analysis of TIMSS 2019. Also, a part of the national items in the Teacher Questionnaire of TIMSS 2019 was selected and seven factors were extracted by Rasch scaling based on two scales, including belief about mathematics and teacher pedagogical beliefs. The scaled scores were analyzed by latent class analysis to classify teacher pedagogical beliefs. The results showed that three dominant beliefs in the teachers were constructivism, direct transfer, and blended, to which 20.5%, 48.5%, and 30.9% of the teachers were classified, respectively. Comparing teaching practices in these groups revealed that less practices were reported in teachers who believed in direct transmit. Constructivist teachers reported the most teaching activities, while blended teachers reported the greatest volume of assessment. Meanwhile, there was no significant difference between the constructivist and traditional teachers in the use of assessment; there was also no difference between the math performance of their students. The results showed that a large part of teachers did not believe in newer pedagogical beliefs. Nevertheless, modifying their beliefs does not improve the students’ achievement. Therefore, although teachers’ beliefs are useful for learning processes, they are not very effective in improving the students’ learning.

Every teacher holds certain beliefs that determine their priorities for teaching and how the students acquire knowledge. It is assumed that teachers’ beliefs influence their classroom decisions and behaviors (Buehl and Beck, 2015; Fives et al., 2015).Much of the literature on the subject focuses on two prototypical beliefs, namely teacher-centered or behaviorist beliefs and learner-centered or constructivist beliefs (Horgan & Gardiner-Hyland, 2019; Berger, et al., 2019). Meanwhile, teachers can hold multiple, potentially-competing beliefs simultaneously, which is entitled blended belief.Studies on the subject of teachers’ beliefs and teaching activities show that teacher self-efficacy, sense of responsibility, pedagogical knowledge, and self-awareness have a moderator role between teachers’ beliefs and practices (Buehl and Beck, 2015). Moreover, despite the scarce research on the powerful effects of teachers’ beliefs on their students’ achievements, these beliefs, which are often communicated nonverbally and unintentionally, are perceived and internalized by the students and have direct consequences for their self-efficacy, efforts, and achievements (Watt and Richardson, 2015). Nonetheless, the idea that the quality of teaching and learning will improve if teachers are supportive of constructivist and student-centered beliefs does not seem to be the case. (Francis, Rapacki & Eker, 2015).The present study was designed to investigate the classes of pedagogical beliefs toward which Iranian teachers tend more. Identifying the relationship between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and teaching practice as well as the students’ achievements is another point of focus in this study.

The present study was a secondary analysis of TIMSS 2019 data. The responses given by 220 eighth-grade math teachers as well as 5980 Iranian students were taken as the sample, which were drawn by stratified two-stage cluster sample design.Three kinds of instruments were analyzed in the present study. First, 12 national items about teacher beliefs on teaching and learning approaches and 34 national items about teacher beliefs on mathematics were examined. The teaching and learning beliefs consisted of two factors: Constructivist and direct transmit approaches to teaching, as adapted from OECD’s Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS). Moreover, Beliefs on mathematics also contained five factors, math as an inquiry process, math learning via active activities, math as a set of rules and procedures, learning math via following teacher guidelines, and math as fixed abilities. The items are derived from IEA’s Teacher Education and Development Study in Mathematics (TEDS-M). Both these national item sets were embedded in the math teacher questionnaire. Second, self-reported teaching activities were examined, which asked teachers about their teaching practices, expectations from students during teaching, and assessment of students. The items were in the math teacher questionnaire. Third, the math achievement of the students were obtained from a pool of 212 items and calculated.In order to analyze the data, certain methods were applied. Rasch scaling was applied to create the teacher scales. Then, latent class analysis was used to classify the teachers into several pedagogical beliefs. Winsteps was used to develop the scales and MPLUS was utilized to classify the teachers. Additionally, IDB Analyzer was used to apply the teacher sampling weights, create Jackknife standard errors, and analyze plausible values.

The scaled scores of seven factors were taken as variables of the latent class analysis to classify the teachers into pedagogical beliefs. The comparison of 2-class and 3-class models based on the model fit criteria (AIC, BIC, and entropy), percentage of sample in each class, and substantial implication of the classes showed that the 3-class model was the better one. Therefore, three groups of teachers were recognized based on their pedagogy beliefs: Direct transmission, constructivism, and blended. Each of these groups accounted for 20.5, 48.5, and 30.9 percent of the sample, respectively.Teacher responses in the teaching practice scales were explored to compare them with respect to the three above classes. The results revealed that constructivist teachers reported the most teaching activities, followed by the blended teachers in the second step. With regard to expectations from the students during teaching, the direct transmit teachers reported significantly less scaled scores than the other two classes, but the difference between the constructivist and blended teachers was not significant. Finally, blended teachers reported the greatest amount of assessment of the students, whereas, there was no significant difference between the constructivist and direct transmit teachers.The last part of the study relates to students’ achievement in these classes of teachers. The results are presented in Table 1.Based on Table 1, although the students of the constructivist teachers showed better math achievement than others, their dominance was not significant. Therefore, there is no evidence to assume that students educated by teachers with different pedagogical beliefs show any different performances.

The remarkable percentage of blended teachers suggests that these teachers have not chosen their strict pedagogical beliefs yet. In this case, simultaneous statements of constructivism and direct transmit are admissible; however, their teaching practices were reported higher than the other groups, probably revealing that their doubtful conditions did not prevent them from being active teachers.One out of every five students is educated by a teacher with traditional beliefs. To change the direct transmit beliefs into constructivism, some tools have been applied. Aside from educating teachers in universities, some other resources have contributed to modified beliefs, including personal experiences of the teachers, teachers’ knowledge of their courses, and teachers’ observation of successful experiences with new teaching approaches based on constructivism.The lack of significant differences in the students’ achievement between the three classes of teachers' beliefs suggests the complexity of comparing achievement by teaching practices. Achievement is a combination of several variables, with teaching practices being one of them. Besides, based on literature, achievement is not deeply affected by constructivist activities due to their time-consuming nature.

This study aimed to investigate internet tendency based on temperament and character, diurnal preferences, and identity styles mediated by anxiety among students in Isfahan, Iran. The research population comprised students of Islamic Azad University, Khomeini Shahr Branch, Isfahan. A sample of 384 students was selected via cluster sampling and responded to the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire, the Identity Style Inventory (ISI), and the Beck Anxiety Inventory. The results showed that self-directedness, normative identity style, diffuse-avoidant identity and novelty-seeking affect internet tendency. Anxiety mediated the relationship of harm avoidance, diffuse-avoidant identity, diurnal preference, and cooperation with internet tendency.

The youth constitute the main users of social networks on the internet and their lifestyles have been greatly influenced by the cyberspace (Xuan & Amat, 2020). The prevalence of internet tendency among teenagers and university students is reported as 0.9% to 33% (Devine et al., 2022). Studies have shown that personality traits play a role in internet tendency (Gervasi et al., 2017). Cloninger's neurobiological model (1987) takes the genotypic aspects of personality as the basis of individual differences in self-regulation cognitive processes (Moreira et al., 2021). Individual differences in the circadian rhythm are determined by the individual’s biological clock and specific preferences (Khaleghipour et al., 2014). Based on literature, diurnal preference is associated with internet addiction mediated by depression (Kang et al. 2015). Chou and Lee (2017) noted that users' personality and identity characteristics are associated with how they use the internet. The role of identity and attachment has been stressed in the addiction to online games and social networks (Monacis et al., 2017). According to research, internet tendency increases as anxiety grows (Przepiorka, Blachnio & Cudo, 2021). In their study, Bai et al. (2022) showed that internet addiction is associated with mental health disorders and quality of life. Soulioti et al. (2018) reported that younger internet users have addictive behaviors toward this technology, and there is a moderate relationship between anxiety symptoms and internet addiction. As the excessive use of the cyberspace can lead to psychological and academic problems, it is crucial to examine the antecedents of excessive internet use. Therefore, this study was conducted to respond to the question of whether anxiety mediates the relationship of internet tendency with temperament and character, diurnal preferences, and identity styles.

This was a descriptive research using structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population comprised the students of Islamic Azad University, Khomeinishahr Branch, Isfahan, Iran, in 2021, selected by multi-stage cluster sampling based on an infinite population of 384 people. The research instruments were:The Internet Addiction Test (IAT) The 20-item IAT was developed by Young (1996) and is scored on a Likert scale (0 to 4). Total scores range from 0 to 80. The validity and reliability of IAT were reported as 0.88 and 0.72, respectively.The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI)This 125-item inventory was developed by Cloninger (1994) and includes four dimensions for temperament and three dimensions for character. Items are scored 0 or 1. The reliability of its dimensions has been reported with Cronbach's alpha more than 0.68.The Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ)This 19-item questionnaire was developed by Horne and Östberg (1976) and consists of three sub-scales, determining the respondents' diurnal preference. Scores range from 16 to 86, with higher scores indicating morningness and lower scores indicating eveningness. Chelminski et al. reported the reliability of MEQ with Cronbach's alpha of 0.78.The Identity Style Inventory (ISI)Developed by Berzonsky (1992), ISI is a 40-item inventory evaluating three identity styles. Scores range from 40 to 200 and items are scored from 1 (uncharacteristic) to 5 (characteristic). Its reliability has been reported with Cronbach's alpha above 0.62 for all the three styles.The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI)This inventory was developed by Beck (1990). It comprises 21 items measuring the severity of anxiety. Scores range from 0 to 63 on BAI. Its test-retest reliability over a one-week interval was reported as 0.75.

The findings on the variables' data distribution showed that the significance level is above 0.05 for anxiety, diurnal preference, and internet tendency, while this assumption was rejected for the other variables; therefore, the data on the variables do not follow a normal distribution. Given that the normality test was not confirmed for most of the variables, SmartPLS software was used for testing the research hypotheses. Variance-based SEM was used to test the main research hypothesis.According to Table 1, the standardized regression coefficient is 0.220 for the effect of harm avoidance on anxiety, 0.235 for diffuse-avoidant identity style on anxiety, 0.166 for diffuse-avoidant identity style on internet tendency, 0.389 for anxiety on internet tendency, 0.114 for diurnal preference on anxiety, 0.163 for self-directedness on anxiety, 0.184 for self-directedness on internet tendency, 0.146 for novelty seeking on internet tendency, 0.286 for cooperation on anxiety, and 0.174 for normative style on anxiety.The mediatory role of anxiety was examined in the relationship of temperament and character, diurnal preference and identity styles with internet tendency. Using Baron and Coney's method (1986) (Table 2), anxiety mediates the relationship of harm avoidance (p=0.037), diffuse-avoidant identity (p=0.044), diurnal preference (p=0.034), self-directedness (p=0.048) and cooperation (p=0.039) with internet tendency. Based on the goodness-of-fit indices of the research model, the data have a proper and adequate fit for measuring the latent variables, and the model estimation results are reliable.

The personality and identity traits of internet users are associated with anxiety. Novelty seeking affects internet tendency by reinforcing the behavioral activation system and low self-direction affects this tendency by making the individual not have any goals and be dependent on external stimuli and uncertainty avoidance. Based on the model of the incentive theory of motivation, reward and need, cooperation with others and receiving social support reduce the individual’s internet tendency by affecting anxiety. Furthermore, eveningness intensifies internet tendency through anxiety and the use of alternative solutions for neutralizing anxious behaviors. According to the neurobiological model, a high level of harm avoidance, which is characterized by traits such as escaping and avoiding dangerous situations, cautiousness, and isolation, acts as a barrier against internet tendency in those who are inclined to use the internet due to anxiety and to neutralize their worries and uncertainty; this group tends to reduce their anxiety by looking for information online and creating a temporary state of security for themselves. The diffuse-avoidant identity is associated with low self-efficacy and uncertainty about one's cognitive ability; emotion-focused strategies, which are associated with a low level of commitment, increase in people with this identity due to their anxiety, leading to poor processing of personal decisions and conflicts. To reduce this conflict and anxiety, these people become inclined toward temporary activities and transient pleasures such as internet use.This study had some limitations. Only questionnaires were used to collect data. The hours of internet access, which could have affected the results, were not controlled. Given the mediating role of anxiety in the relationship of diurnal preference, temperament and character and identity styles with internet tendency, recommendations shall be made to curriculum developers for nurturing effective personality traits among students in order to manage their anxiety.