نشریه پژوهش های فلسفی
پیاپی 43 (Summer 2023)

Despite Wittgenstein's philosophical activities in Britain and his strong inclination towards analytic philosophy, there are also non-analytic elements in his thought which are rooted in classical German thought, especially in Kant's critical philosophy. We can, therefore, detect Kantian elements in Wittgenstein's thought. Concerning the main aim of this research, i.e., to show the Kantian veins of Wittgenstein’s thought, the following elements can be enumerated: critique of Metaphysics, delimitation of expression of thought, transcendentality of logic and ethics, problem of Metaphysics and science, refutation of private language. Given the evolution of Wittgenstein's though, this paper aims to show that, first, these similarities and parallels can be drawn not only from the Tractatus but also from the Philosophical Investigations. Second, there are fundamental differences between Wittgenstein's commentators, for instance, P.M.S Hacker argues against the transcendental reading of both the Tractatus and the Philosophical Investigations, and claims that the two philosophers do not share the same concept of the term transcendental. Finally, the question arises as to whether these Kantian veins can be considered as a proof of the unity of Wittgenstein's thought.

Aristotelian Logic, the oldest system of reasoning, has always been come into focus. The Syllogism as the focal issue amid Aristotle’s logic has caused many controversial discussions. After Classic Logic expansion in the 20th century, logicians had a chance to study Aristotelian Syllogism, especially premises-conclusion relation, precisely. In 1951, Jan Lukasiewicz suggested Conditional-Implicative perception and examined the Syllogistic system within axiomatic confines. Lukasiewicz believed a conditional sentence with conjunctive premises as the antecedent could thoroughly represent a perfect mood. Twenty years later, Timothy Smiley and John Corcoran criticized Lukasiewicz’s account independently. As believed by them, Syllogism is a deduction, and Aristotelian Syllogism must be studied in the context of the Natural Deduction system. In the 80s, Paul Thom claimed that Aristotle’s Syllogism could be taken as Triadic Implication. As stated by Thom, a syllogism is a conditional sentence without a conjunctive antecedent. The present article begins with a brief introduction on each standpoint. Then the Implicative and Conductive accounts and their relation to Aristotelian Syllogism are investigated.

Arthur Danto in order to achieve the definition of art, while rejecting previous views and clearly opposing the essentialism of the concept of art, seeks a new explanation in challenging contemporary artworks with a completely different view. By turning away from Kant's point of view, which dominated the theories of art until the middle of the 20th century, he bases his theory under the influence of Hegel and based on the historical context of the process of transfiguration of the ordinary object to an artwork. Based on this, a historical, cultural, and social context is necessary for the objects to acquire the legitimacy of being an artwork. From his point of view, a new narrative of an ordinary thing emerges through the artist's way of looking at the ordinary thing (in the historical context) and the way he presents it, and he transforms it into an embodied concept and meaning, which leads to the transformation into a work of art. The excessive emphasis of his theory on subjectivism causes personal interpretations and relativism. This article follows the question of “what makes a work of art, a work of art?”, by examining and explain Danto's opinions, while pointing to the works of art referred to by him, I try to describe the factors influencing his theory to finally analyze some of the flaws in this perception of the concept of art.

In his critical reading of the book Prolegomena to a Theory of Language, Safaie (2021), referring to a Kantian epistemology and several other approaches, considers Hjelmslev’s theory of language a priori, non-empirical, pure, rationalist, and transcendent. In our study, after presenting the relationship between the Prolegomena and the theory of language as a whole, as well as pointing out some issues regarding the Persian translation of this book, we assess the main problems raised in Safaie's critique by referring to a wider range of Hjelmslev’s works. Looking from a Kantian viewpoint, we conclude that the knowledge and propositions provided in this theory, are “analytical a posteriori”. Examining the problem of “immanence”, we find that “Holuli” (“entering from outside”) and “transcendent” cannot be attributed to Glossematics. Under the issue of “structure”, we state that this theory is “constructive” and that no “a priori necessity” is imposed on the structure. In general, we describe Hjelmslev’s theory of language in terms of methodology and epistemology as empirical, a posteriori, reflexive, deductive, constructivist, and immanent, and therefore we don’t agree with the idea of putting this theory among "objectivist" theories criticized by Lakoff. Finally, by pointing to the possibility of dialogues with other linguistic theories (including cognitive approaches), we underline the potential importance of Glossematics in the field of language theorization today.

The goal of science is to explain reality and the world, and the goal of philosophy is also ontology. Philosophical views on scientific opinions and scientific opinions have had a direct influence on the way of worldview and ontology. Since the early twentieth century, the scientific flow of reduction affects logic and philosophy, psychology and sociology, and even theology and religion. On the other hand, the new emergent flow of emergentism in opposition to reductionism flourished in the late twentieth century. The philosophical and analytical validation of these two seemingly contradictory views promotes the levels of scientific methods and approaches, as well as philosophical views, especially philosophies such as the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of psychology, and the philosophy of sociology. Reductionism is trying to coordinate with unity, realize the unity of sciences, eliminate the waste of scientific theories, and provide the possibility of a stronger justification. On the other hand, emergentism involves the hierarchical plurality of the world's creatures. On the other hand, emergentism involves the hierarchical plurality of the world's creatures which causes the classification of science. Each level and class have its lows, rules, and concepts per se. Reductionism is unable to explain the plurality of facts and levels of existence; But emergentism with its theoretical framework explains both the continuum, unity and multiplicity of reality means the hierarchical plurality of reality. the reduction merely is an essential step in understanding and discovering down-up causality that is used as one of the theoretical concepts of emergentism and somewhat explains the cause of the relationship between the layers of existence. But reduction strategy is not successful in recognizing and explaining the existence of layers and classes of science. Reductions with a priority look at reality are subject to selfish judgment and preference, but in emergentism, reality and ontology determine and identify the methodology and epistemology.

Greek society was in the search for virtues and prosperity, at the end. In their traditional teachings, only the virtues obtained from the gods' attention and related to society were cherished. However, they gradually found out that the gods were their paragon for morals and virtues for no rationale. On this ground, their traditional beliefs started to change gradually. During the course of these changes, Sophists introduced themselves as the tutors of the new Greek generation. In their opinion, adherence to necessities beyond individuals is pointless, and human virtuosity is meaningless; Humans' prosperity is formed due to their nature and their natural demand of political power reinforcement. Yet Socrates's point of view was adaptable neither to sophists and the new Greek generation's moral system nor to traditional definitions of morality. Socrates demonstrated that if a moral system is not built on truth, all of the principles in the society are incorrect, creating harmful results instead of resulting in humans' prosperity as the extremity of every moral system. In his ethical system, virtue is not limited to minor matters. Still, it is a kind of human maturity that contains humans' grown dignity in every aspect of life in addition to political issues. In his view, all of the virtues are lucrative due to taking advantage of the idea of goodness. He believes that the knowledge of the concept of goodness is the foundation of all virtues, giving the human the might to identify evil and virtuous and leads him to prosperity.

There could be various comparative studies between Kant and Kierkegaard on fields like human knowledge, ethics, faith, art, etc. This paper aims to compare the two philosopher’s epistemology through their writings. The main common ground of Kant’s and Kierkegaard’s epistemology is their belief in the idea of a “fissure” between theory and practice, which constitutes the core of their contemplations on human knowledge. This article shows that Kant’s theory of knowledge paved the way for Kierkegaard to describe his notions of the “fissure” between being and thought. Thus, it will be shown that Kant and Kierkegaard have been led to believe in the finitude of human beings in knowledge by this split. Then, it will be demonstrated that Kierkegaard, following Kant, distinguishes “being” from “essence” and “actuality” from “ideality”. Finally, we argue that Kant’s critique of the traditional proofs of God’s existence anticipates Kierkegaard’s conflict with natural theology and his idea that traditional demonstrations are useless for a believer.

In recent decades, Functionalism has become a standard approach towards philosophy of mind and cognitive science, Functionalism is inspired by computer science and against prior theories about mind. Functionalism takes mind as a processor and body as a provider of raw data for this processor. Mind with the help of mental algorithms translates perceptional data to symbolic representations as concepts of objects and events. According to some philosophers, this leads to problems like the problem of meaning. In this paper, with an analytical approach, Embodiment is proposed as a solution to these problems. According to Embodied Mind, regarding the body as a mere machine is the root of all problems in Functionalism. Embodied mind is consisting of three pars: 1. Perception-Motor system which presents meaningful perception of objects and events to the mind. 2. Conceptualization system which unites information provided by perception-motor system. 3. Metaphors, processes in mind, which enable us to think and talk about everyday and mathematical concepts and meta-language. These are processes, mainly unconscious, in mind for understanding concepts. Embodied Mind rejects the idea of body as mere machine and mind as a brain processes. It also rejects symbolic representations as concepts. Concepts are simulators of objects and events, rooting in interaction between body and the world. Human as an Embodied Being exist in the world and interact with it and this is what makes sense of concepts in mind.

This study aimed to analyze the concept of Bildung, which is based on Herder's concept. Accordingly, it is possible to provide new conceptual components for the education system. Herder draws a goal for human beings, ignoring history and culture, that this target reaches a common point and finds meaning in the shadow of cultures and multiplicity of ethnic identification and nations, and that is the meaning of humanity. The present study explains the concept of Bildung, culture, and humanity using the method of conceptual analysis and considers humanity as the purpose of education and the concept of culture and its elements as a way to achieve this goal. Finally, he concludes with the basic concepts of education. The result of the present research is based on the fact that the concept of Bildung has a basic role in developing Human, Transcultural, Comprehensive and Harmonious education; So, in general humanity in Herder's thought is the supreme purpose of human creation and education and the concepts of culture and Bildung help us to achieve the desired human perfection. From Herder's point of view, culture is texture and context and also content for education. It means that culture is the history and theory of education in terms of context and on the content side, it is the idea of Bildung, which he considers cultural education. Therefore, a type of dialectical relationship can be found between the concepts of culture, the idea of Bildung, and the purpose of education, which is humanity, so that one is impossible without the presence of the another. Finally, the basic concepts of education, which were concluded based on the concept of Bildung and its components, include freedom education, historical education, transcultural education, progressive education, and aesthetic education.

In this article, we are trying to show that in the postmodern era, by questioning the ontological foundations of theology and rejecting absolutism and embracing pluralism and relativism, religious education has been placed in an anti-realistic postmodern framework. This type of education and training tries to replace the horizontal and context-oriented or local view by rejecting the vertical-oriented view in traditional and modern education and training, in which transcendental and absolute values are accepted, and this is the method of deconstructing this type of education and training that has been proposed under the influence of postmodern philosophers such as Derrida. This type of education is expanding and growing in the 21st century. But this approach itself also faces problems that cannot be completely general. Negation of the essence and nature of religion, failure to recognize the essence of religion, considering religious experience to be historical and local, etc. in this approach indicates its insufficiency in its complete spread throughout the world. Therefore, it seems that critical education is a suitable alternative to post-modern religious education in order to familiarize students with the nature and essence of religion and to accept pluralism and contextualism in their own education.

The paper aims to examine and criticize recent approaches suggested by some virtue reliabilists. To this end, section 2 provides a sketch of Sosa’s triple account of knowledge, on which knowledge is described as a cognitive achievement and an apt belief. Borrowing some lines from Lackey and Pritchard’s criticisms, I try to show that Sosa’s account is vulnerable to two distinct problems in section 3: the problem of cases of knowledge which are not cognitive achievements, and the problem of non-classic Gettier cases.  Section 4 discusses four recent approaches pursued by some prominent virtue epistemologists, seeking to show how each of them responds to the above distinct problems. These four approaches are as follows: Pritchard’s anti-luck virtue epistemology, Sosa and Turri’s dispositional account, Greco and Littlejohn’s safety-based account of ability, and knowledge-first virtue epistemology from Miracchi and kelp. In addition to addressing standard complaints to each of these accounts, I put forward new arguments against some of them, making clear that all of these approaches face severe difficulties in explaining knowledge and justification. Finally, in section 5, I sketch an alternative version of virtue epistemology which I call know-how-first virtue epistemology. Inspired by know-how-first anti-intellectualism, I put forward an argument in favor of know-how-first virtue epistemology, trying to provide good answers to the mentioned challenges which every virtue reliabilism should face.

In ten of his works, Al-Fārābī discusses ousia/substance and its derivatives. Among these works, we frequently encounter quotations from Aristotle and Al-Fārābī's interpretation of them. He accepts the established meaning of ousia as substance and doesn't argue against its translation to maujūd, Eyn, maahiy[y]at and ẕāt. This article tries to show the similarities and differences between Al-Fārābī and Aristotle conceptions of substance and then to bridge between the two innovative theories of Al-Fārābī: one in his division of existence and another regarding his view on reality. In discussing the concept of substance, Farabi seeks to create a unity between Plato and Aristotle's views. In another way, this claim can be expressed that Farabi aims to create a unity between the book of metaphysics and Aristotle's treatise on categories. In this direction, his innovative theory of substance is born. Also, this paper shows some inconsistencies existing in his discussion, which makes his philosophical language even more ambiguous than Aristotle's in Metaphysics and subject to various interpretations. Finally, the relation between the concept of substance and the concepts of shai and tashakhkhos is discussed.

The debates that are being made today under the headings of classical economics and its inherited liberal system emphasize the role of the industrial revolution in the formation of this system, while it seems; For a correct understanding of ideas and semantics, concepts such as; The "invisible hand" and "free economy" left behind by the founders of this economic system, especially Adam Smith, must be considered in the political-legal and even moral nature of the system. For this reason, this study tries to examine some of the basic features of the English constitutional system of the Smith era, such as; The concept of "state", "public interest", "freedom" and their subsequent evolution, to the question of what factors played an important role in the emergence of the theoretical foundations of liberal economics by Adam Smith and the theorists after him? Give the right answer. The results show that the key concepts of classical economics emphasized by Adam Smith were, in fact, prescriptions for the elimination of the immoral-political effects that the newly established post-revolutionary constitutional system inevitably had on economics because of its rejection of the old traditions of feudalism. British politics imposed. Thus, although his intellectual reflections are understood today in a different sense from their original reading by the neoclassicists and others, because these intellectual foundations created a meaningful closeness and alignment between the British political and economic system, it is still the case. They are the focus of Western economists, and their economic system, despite the evolutionary trends after classical economics, has so far maintained a system based on "individualistic" principles.

This article seeks to demonstrate, through a hypothetical dialogue between Hannah Arendt and Emmanuel Levinas, that the essence of politics must be sought beyond "real politics" and its agent, namely, the state. For this reason, politics requires a fundamental, radical and serious rethinking. This rethinking, however, must be carried out by first deconstructing politics to prepare it for emerging new possibilities; second deconstructing Ethics and extending it from the individual level to the level of "I in the We"; third reinterpreting the relationship between politics and ethics, which are already in the process of constructive judgment and are ready for a relationship that has no master or servant. As a result of such simultaneous reflections, the foundations of what this article views as Ethical politics could probably be clarified in general terms. This essay thus raises three long-standing questions: What is politics? What is ethics? What is ethical politics? The response to the first question is founded on Arendt's views. This paper draws attention to concepts such as plurality instead of unity, public realm instead of private realm, and peace instead of war. Relying on Levinas's philosophy of ethics, the second question is answered by emphasizing the primacy of understanding over cognition, the other over self, and the person over the land. Last but not least, the third question is addressed by establishing a link connection between the mentioned thinkers’ views and their shared ideas such as responsibility for the other, the primacy of the interest of humans over national interests and a new concept of state.

In his theory of knowledge, Kant presents an exclusive method for obtaining science by applying categories to the data of sensory intuition. "A priori synthetic propositions" are those the only the product of the application of categories to the data of sensory intuition, Propositions that are Kant's exclusive criterion in diagnosing science. Kant claims that only the sciences that have a priori synthetic propositions, which necessarily have sensory intuition data are science, and propositions that do not have sensual intuition data are nothing more than fake science. With the same reasoning, he pushed metaphysics out of science. Accordingly, the attempt of this paper is to measure Kant's theory of knowledge with his own criterion of knowledge. We want to know whether it has a priori synthetic propositions or not. To be more precise, do the propositions through which Kant explained his theory of knowledge, contain sensory intuition data or not? If they have these data, they are science, otherwise, they are not. The investigations carried out in this article, which focuses on Kant's important and key propositions in transcendental aesthetic and Transcendental analytic, show that these propositions, which define and explain the basis of Kant's theory of knowledge, lack sensory intuition data and are not science. Eventually, Kant's "theory of knowledge" is not able to obtain the accreditation it wants and according to Kant's own theory of knowledge, it is not a valid science.

Perhaps assuming a principle which is beyond reason and being is the most characteristic of the Neoplatonic thought. This principle is absolutely ineffable and no epithet deserves it. We can talk about it merely by negation. But such a transcendent principle, which Plotinus introduced it to the platonic philosophy, did not remain without any critique among Neoplatonists. The most elaborated critique by a Neoplatonist is that of Damascius in the first part of his Problems and Solutions. He argues that the One, being an arche, cannot be transcendent, and being transcendent, refuses to be an arche. So, there is an inconsistency between being an arche and being transcendent. Therefore, the Neoplatonic One, which is the first principle, is not beyond being, rather it is a being. However, this claim, which is the corner stone of Damascius’ argument, has been neglected by the writers on the topic, and they have sought other formulations for his argument. Based on Damascius’ texts, we have argued that we can ascribe such a claim to Damascius, and further, regard it as the foundation of his belief in an absolutely transcendent beyond the One, which is completely ineffable and about which only silence is due.

With the advent of the so-called "philosophical revolution", it is clear that without the necessary procedures and issues of thought, any science is merely a continuation of the accepted world in its present state, denying its main role as a critical act versus a scientific act. Here we bring together the human (central) problem in modern philosophy and the philosophy of the city. Here we first examine the term in modern philosophy and then, to refine or reinterpret it in the philosophy of the city, we analyze main works to define the modern human-centered city. what is a human-centered city in modern philosophy? As Kant does the project of "humanizing science" by separating man from the immaterial realm of knowledge; Modern urban planners also carry out the plan of "humanizing the city" or the human-centered city by separating it from its original world. The transcendental plan of modernist urban planners, with a posteriori knowledge, receives what is appropriate for man in the city, and then applies it equally to the a priori in a general matter for all human beings and all cities. This is while understanding man in the same situation leads us to the point that there is no human being. Human personality traits, culture, and lived experience fall victim to abstract and general characteristics. This is the humanization of the modern city by removing human beings from the city.

Nowadays, theories of the philosophy of mind, are divided into illusionist and non-illusionist. In relation to the Mind Problem (MP), Illusionism of Soul (IS) considers soul and all of the unphysical-mental events (like immaterial personal identity, non-physical consciousness and freewill, non-metaphysical morality, etc.) as an illusion and believes that science will completely explain them in the future. The authors have seen IS in neurophilosophy and Daniel Dennett's Center of Narrative Gravity (CNG). This essay is devoted to explaining IS and the two views on MP, and finally to comparatively comparing them. In this library research paper, we found that the two theories are common in physicalist-evolutionist basics that cause to consider mental events as an illusion and reject dualism; and they are different in eliminativism. we conclude that the mind-brain identity, which is the most important basic of illusionism, has many consequences; for example, the transformation of man into a machine, the unification of man with other animals, and certain ideas about a philosophical zombie.

Evidently the greek terms καθόλου and καθ’ ἕκαστον appeared first in Aristotle’s works as meaning respectively universal and particular. In Plato’s works καθόλου is rarely used as synonum to ὅλον, meaning “whole”, and nowhere indicates “universal” in the logical sense. To be “whole” is a characteristic of ideas, implying a very high degree in the hierarchy of unity, ordered between the One and maltitudes. Aristotle uses καθόλου in several and even inexact meanings. Sometimes it means “universal” in an exactly logical sense, but often and specicaly in criticizing Plato’s theory of ideas, it indicates “genus” and doesn’t include any universal unconditionally. He criticizes Plato for conceiving universals as separate beings, however, contrary to the common view, καθόλου in such contexts means inclusively “genus”and doesn’t refer to species or any other logical universal. In the like manner καθ’ ἕκαστον occasionally in his works implies “particular”, but criticizing Plato’s ideas, it appears often as a synonym of species. Universal and particular, at the same time have some relation to “whole” and “part” and in that regard genus and species are considered as part and whole respectively. In this article we are going to explain the logical, as well as the lexical relation between “whol” and “universal”, on the one hand, and “part” and “particular”, on the other hand, but lastly there seems to bo no relation at all.

Suppose the supreme religion as a reality includes the whole life of every human being. In this case, it is appropriate that we go beyond a comparative theology depending on dialogue to give credibility to our existence while hoping to address the general issue of interfaith dialogue and its more precise form, i.e., deep interfaith dialogue that involves critical thinking, Emotional Intelligence, reciprocal cooperation, and unconscious presuppositions is of attention. We try to build an interfaith dialogue based on different religious conditions and complexities, the actual role of human beings in dialogue, and the bio-religion of religious people. Among the specified conditions of interfaith dialogue, we can mention an unfailing commitment to one's religious tradition, listening humbly and empathetically to the other, seeking why, from where, and where to go, being open, and establishing a mutual relationship. Interfaith dialogue, while facing the vastness of the issue of religion and different people, also faces the vastness of the structure of human beings. The dialogue of heads, hands, hearts, and finally, the dialogue of the lives of holy people are examples of this expansion. Despite all these conditions, it seems that the human being conversationalist has failed or not flourished, the act of dialogue, the remaining unsaid, the power of silence in a dialogue, the specific boundaries of religion or different religions concerning each other, and various descriptions and interpretations of religions can be influenced by many voluntary and involuntary factors. So, we should go back, and instead of the specific and powerful phrase of inter-religious dialogue, use the more comprehensive phrase of human being dialogue about religions.

The sense of taste and smell is one of the senses that has been considered by Islamic philosophers such as Mulla Sadra and neuroscientists. In philosophy and neuroscience, taste and smell are a means of understanding smells and tastes. On how to understand smell and taste by looking at the data and arguments of these sciences, these explanations complement each other. From the point of view of neuroscience, chemical stimuli undergo a complex process of taste and smell in the taste and smell system, which ultimately leads to the perception of smell and taste. But Mulla Sadra distorts the explanation of natural scholars of these senses and believes that in these definitions the underlying causes are confused with the active causes. Sadra believes that when the soul communicates with the natural world and outside through the body and belonging to the body, it creates a form similar to a foreign object in its realm (soul). Accordingly, this study compares the views of neuroscientists and Mulla Sadra on the perception of taste and smell. Also, the natures used in Mulla Sadra's theories are reviewed using modern sciences. Thus, it seems that according to the theories of neuroscience in the field of various tastes, a change must be made in this field in transcendent Theosophy.

The study of imagination has always had a significant role in the study of art and aesthetics. And imagination plays a central role in Ricoeur's philosophical system; a subject that has received less attention. It was Ricoeur's goal to bring the productive aspect of imagination back to the main text of philosophy, by presenting a critical reading of the history of philosophy. By using Emanuel Kant's imagination analysis, Ricoeur revived the various dimensions of imagination in the field of perception, to achieve a comprehensive theory of productive imagination. This paper attempts to address the importance of painting as a work of art and its relevance to reality, by studying the path taken by Ricoeur to present a theory of productive imagination. In this regard, explaining the role of Iconic Augmentation, which is one of the latent characteristics of the productive aspect of imagination, better defines the action present in the image and the dialectical position of language and image. Ultimately, painting, as a fictional work that its idea's reference is not merely a representation, becomes more real as its imaginativeness increases. The result is a new approach to describe the nature of painting as a work of art.

When Immanuel Kant, in the third minute of his critique of the power of judgement, discussed the beautiful thing as something whose face and form have an infinite finality, the way was opened for proposing several ideas in the realm of art. One of these theories is formalism, which emphasizes the doctrine of artistic form and the harmonic design of an artwork that does not refer to anything other than itself. The formalists, who proposed their opinions based on Kant's opinions in the field of composition and the Gestalt design of an artwork, soon presented their views on the shape and form of the artwork. The concept of denotative form, which was proposed by one of the most influential formalists, Clive Bell, has formed the basis of formalist analysis. In the upcoming article, while introducing and analyzing the formalist approach to art, the criticism and pathology of this approach to art will be discussed. Since in the contemporary world, even in countries with a strong cultural background like Iran, when dealing with art, a formalist point of view appears in some way, the necessity of recognizing and criticizing this method is essential in order to familiarize researchers in the field of art.

Can atheistic explanations scientifically explain the world and humans? Can theistic deductive arguments provide a rational explanation of the world? Many philosophers of contemporary religion believe that deductive arguments for the existence of God are invalid because they are either deductively invalid or based on one or more false or uncertain premises. Hence, they turned to non-analogical arguments about the existence of God. The purpose of this paper is to examine and evaluate one of these interesting new arguments, the Swinburne inductive argument. This research paper is a library-based theoretical analysis that is done through the concepts, propositions, and arguments. Swinburne claims that humanistic and materialistic explanations cannot explain the world and humans. In contrast, he has three arguments for the existence of the universe, the existence of scientific laws, and the laws of the process of evolution; He uses the existence of God as three affirmative inductive arguments and concludes the accumulation of theism as the best explanation. The result of such arguments is that theism can be the ultimate explanation of the world. It will also be shown that such arguments are less challenging and can greatly increase the likelihood of God's existence.

Divine Conceptualism is a solution to the problem that Platonism poses for theism. This view is put forward by Alvin Plantinga and Greg Welty, two contemporary American philosophers, argues for a Platonic realism about propositions, possible worlds, and mathematical abstract objects; That is, although it considers these abstract objects to exist, it considers them to be concrete and not abstract, and in order to reconcile with theism, it considers these objects as the thoughts of God. Craig, a contemporary American theist philosopher, argues that this view can not be considered a sutible solution; Because it is not acceptable to consider abstracts as mathematical objects as concrete; In addition, conceptualism has difficulty in justifying false propositions. Conceptualism also requires God's attribution to malicious thoughts, and in Welty's interpretation of conceptualism, the challenge of Platonism remains. Examining what has been done, it seems that some of Craig's objections to Welty and Plantinga's view of conceptualism are true. More serious objections of conceptualism can also be introduced into Welty and Plantinga's views. Plantinga and Welty have neglected intuitive(direct) Knowledge and reduced God's knowledge to acquired(indirect) knowledge; For if the knowledge of God is to be regarded intuitively, while at the same time realizing the realities of mathematics, propositions, and possible worlds, these objects are simply present in the existence of God; Not in the sense of separate concepts.

Animal suffering and the problem of evil have recently received much attention as a challenge to theism, Keltz seeks to answer this problem with a Neo-Thomistic perspective. This paper examines and evaluates Keltz's defense. In explaining Keltz's view, it is important to note that he, like Aquinas, does not consider unpleasant emotions such as pain, sadness, fear, and despair as evil, but considers them as good physiological processes that are beneficial for animals. likewise, by examining rationality and signs of self-awareness such as metacognition, episodic memory, and theory of mind through scientific researches, Keltz seeks to show that rationality and animal self-awareness is questionable and since cognitive abilities have a direct relationship with the perception of pain and suffering, therefore, the perception of pain and suffering in animals is also a source of doubt. According to Keltz, animals have only the estimative power that causes them to resemble empirical induction. Even if some animal species have self-awareness, the resurrection of the dead and eternal life can be conceivable for them. Objectors might also emphasize the seemingly pointless nature of conditions like chronic pain syndrome in animals. Keltz responds to them based on God's purpose for the universe, the limitations of the universe, and the moral message that such pains bring about. In the following, Keltz's views are evaluated, and argued that episodic memory and the ability of simple conceptualization in some species have been proven in some experiments. Therefore, his approach toward denying animal pain and suffering will not achieve much success, it seems by relying on other parts of his theodicy, such as God's purpose for creating the world, the benefits of pain and suffering for earthly creatures, the resurrection of the dead and divine compensation, Keltz will achieve more success.

Alfred North Whitehead believes that in all philosophical systems there is an ultimate which is their foundation. In his philosophy of organism which becoming and process have primacy, “this ultimate is termed creativity”. But when we search for this subject in his works, we see in spite of its important, he did not explain his intention clearly and in detail. By considering importance of this subject, present paper tries to first, describe and analyze creativity as an ultimate and clarify its characteristics. Second, criticize pluralistic and monistic interpretations of creativity and it was provided another interpretation which based on unity in plurality. Third, to consider relation between God and creativity in Whitehead’s works, especially in Process and reality, to show that Whitehead’s reading of God in framework of his Philosophy demands that although Creativity is distinct from God, they are interconnected. Fourth, it was revealed some implications and consequents of distinction between God and creativity and then on the basis of distinction between cosmological Creativity and ontological creativity was shown that Whiteheadian creativity is mainly cosmological which can only work as explanation of becoming and process of nature not of ontological origin of actual entities.

Although Plato has always been revered throughout the history of philosophy, the general trend of philosophy up to the modern era was Aristotelian. Even the Neoplatonists, with the exception of Plotinus, wrote more or less in the Aristotelian style and in form of Aristotelian commentaries. Philosophers knew very little about the authentic or historical Plato; Not only because Plato's writings were transmitted by the Neoplatonists, but also because Plato was understood in a Neoplatonic way. Ficino was the first to try to revive Plato during the Renaissance. However, his efforts did not result in an interpretive change. The real revival of Plato took place in the eighteenth century and in Germany. This revival is understudied in Persian. Though Schleiermacher is known for being one of Plato’s translators, it is not known what happened to Plato from Ficino to Schleiermacher. There is even scarce knowledge about Schleiermacher’s role in Plato scholarship and the process which led to Schleiermacher’s Plato. This article deals with the subject of Plato scholarship up to the emergence of the Romantic Plato. Departing from the conviction that novel philosophical ideas are not born ex nihilo, we will examine the early stages of Plato scholarship in order to recognize the figures whose legacy became the cornerstone of modern Plato scholarship. Thus, we examine the Plato scholarship of Ficino, Brucker, Tiedemann and Tennemann, and try to find out what distinguishes the modern or early modern interpretations from the traditional Plato and what are the grounding canons of modern Plato scholarship.

Most of scientists of religion sometimes consider Chantepie de la Saussaye to be the founder of the phenomenology of religion. This study first explains Chantepie's view of the phenomenology of religion, and while analyzing the phenomenology of Chantepie's religion, which lies between the philosophy of religion and the history of religion, believes that the critique of the phenomenology of Chantepie's religion in general is self-critical. The most important critique of Chantepie's phenomenology of religion is that it did not deal with the essence of phenomena and the nature of religion. His phenomenology is the classification of phenomena with a non-historical perspective. By reflecting on Chantepie’s ideas, this article proves that Chantepie pays attention to the special nature of religion. Contrary to the criticisms leveled at him that his phenomenology is merely descriptive, Chantepie has in fact studied two basic aspects of religion, namely its essence and manifestations. This paper explores and then evaluates this critique, and finally distinguishes that critics measure Chantepie's phenomenology of religion in terms of Husserl's philosophical phenomenology; while Chantepie, by emphasizing ritual phenomena, seeks to understand the nature of religion and the sacred as the essence of religions.

Henri Corbine is a French philosopher who he connected Husserl's phenomenology with Islamic philosophy, especially the wisdom of Sheikh Eshraq and Mulla Sadra. The discontinuous imaginal universe that resulted from this connection, it is a purgatory world in which events are placed between two material and imaginary worlds. Among the texts that can be examined with the discontinuous imaginal universe, is the story "Sorena and the Fire Vest" by Muslim Naseri, whose story is included in the category of children's and adolescent literature. The story "Soerna and the Fire Vest" is a fantasy story whose subject is surreal and at the same time, it is full of freshness and dynamism of the image and the result of the author's creative mind and it has many similarities and similarities with the features of the discontinuous imaginal universe. The main goal of this research is to investigate the discontinuous imaginal universe in the story "Soerna and the Fire Vest". Therefore, in the present research, the phenomenology of Henry Corbine and the characteristics of the discontinuous imaginal universe in the story "Sorena and the fire vest" were extracted using the descriptive-analytical method and using library resources and common concepts were analyzed. The results showed that the features of the discontinuous imaginal universeare fully present in the images and concepts of the story and it casts a shadow over all of it like a dominant thought.

Substance is one of the fundamental concepts in the history of philosophy that has a history as long as the history of philosophy itself. Although this concept has underwent profound developments and assumed different layers during the centuries, because of its firm linkage with common-sense, never lost its significance. Since the birthplace of the concept of substance is ancient Greece and Greek philosophy, this essay intends to narrate an analytical history of the genesis of the concept in ancient Greece; then to trace its course of development in Christian and Islamic middle age; and finally, to investigate its remnants in modern philosophy. The purpose of this essay, however, is not merely a philosophy-historical narrative, but its secondary purpose is to place the concept of substance under a critical light and to report its fundamental critiques. Hence, we will consider the most important critiques, mostly proposed by Anglo-Saxon philosophers, and will conclude that this concept in order to have a legitimate presence in philosophy, must submit a fundamental reformulation.

It seems that in Cartesian thought the possibility of sense experience cannot easily be put forward because of the theoretical foundations of his philosophy. He, in his masterpiece, i.e., Meditations on First Philosophy, from the very beginning tries to erase any sign of sensory world - the main subject-matter of sense experience and its pre-condition – through (ordinary or hyperbolical) doubts. His attack on senses is so giant that until Sixth Meditation they cannot be restored unless through theology by recourse to the non-deceiving God. The restoration upon which there are great differences among scholars. In our paper, we try to show that regarding to the end of Cartesian philosophy as the mastery over nature, to the extent that he explicitly calls his philosophy, “practical” as opposed to the “theoretical” philosophy of Scholastics, we cannot help but accept not only possibility of sense experience but also its necessity. This mastery over nature can only be attained, for human beings, within the realm of sense experience which is the final link among man as the thinking thing and nature as the extended one, through which the Cartesian science is to be established. Now, if sense experiences have remained unexplained in Cartesian thought, Descartes’ claim that “our philosophy makes us the lords and masters of the nature” remains unexplained, too.

Essentialism and Haecceitism are theories to explain the issue of individuality in objects. Some philosophers consider these two schools of philosophy to be one, and others oppose this idea. In this regard, it seems that essentialism and Haecceitism can not be considered as one, because Essentialism in its strongest forms, such as Origen essentialism, seeks to solve the problem of individuality in objects through individual essence, and Haecceitism seeks to explain this problem through the Haecceity. Both views provide explanations to justify their claim, and challenge the other point of view and perspective. In this article, by explaining and criticizing the views of the followers of essentialism and Haecceitism, it has reached the general evaluation that it seems that Haecceitism has been more successful in proving its approach or in criticizing the Haecceitism by presenting more and stronger arguments and in justifying individuality for possible objects. It is more acceptable.

The purpose of this research was to compare the philosophical contexts in the story of Hayy bin Yaqzan and the story of Robinson Crusoe. The research method was descriptive-analytical using content analysis method along with inductive approach. In the analysis of the stories, the unit of sentence analysis was considered. In this regard, the sentences aligned with the categorization system were specified and recorded in the checklist. The main categories including ontology, epistemology, anthropology and values ​​were determined. The subcategories under the main categories were conceptualized with intellectual and philosophical approaches. The findings of the research showed that there are commonalities and differences in the philosophical contexts of the two stories. The most important thing in common between the two stories is to make people aware of their inner strength in achieving their goals, even if there are many problems on the way and in crisis situations. The most important difference between the two stories can be identified in the dimension of ontology. While the ultimate goal in Hayy bin Yaqzan story is the knowledge of the One God, in Robinson Crusoe story, God is not the ultimate goal and the ultimate goal remains at the level of material life. Therefore, the philosophical fields related to cognition, human, and values are formed in the shadow of the final goal mentioned in the two stories.

In discussing Hume's view of causality, it has been generally focused on its negative aspects and skeptical results. Whereas, according to naturalistic interpretation, Hume's purpose is to illustrate the nature of human beings and to determine the limits of human understanding. Hume's aim is not to philosophically reject the belief in causally connected, but rather to criticize the sort of philosophical thinking that claim to rationalize them. In this paper, the author intends to provide first the naturalistic explanation of Hume’s causality discussion, relying on Kemp Smith's unprecedented interpretation. In explanation kemp smith provided for the functioning of human mind, the origin of the necessary connection idea is an inner feeling that is generalized to reality, and the belief in causality cannot be proved by any argument. The emotional origin of belief in causality, which is not based on reason, is a serious challenge in its acceptance and justification. Therfore the second and main purpose of this article is to examine the mental origin of the necessary connection, then the concept of reason is evaluated from Hume's view to clarify in what sense belief in causality cannot be based on reason.

Present article tries to review and appreciate the Persian translation of two chapters of the History of Islamic Philosophy. This book edited by S. H. Nasr and O. Leaman and printed by Routledge in 1996. Apart from editors who are experts in Islamic philosophy and culture some other Professors and researchers are present in the writing of the book. Consequently, the work of Nasr and Leaman and their contributors is a considerable activity in the subject of writing history of philosophy in Islamic tradition. Persian translation of the History of Islamic Philosophy, printed in five volumes by Hikmat press in Tehran. In Persian translation that worked by some professors and researchers, first volume has no scientific editor and because of this in some of its chapters there are difficulties. For example, in the eleventh and twelfth chapters that are on al-Kindi and al-Farabi and translated into Persian by Ruhallah Alemi, we encounter with important errors in conveying the meanings of the original text. Here we study both chapters by comparing between Persian translation and original English text of them. Reviewing of chapters on al-Kindi and al-Farabi are exercised separately but our appreciation is in the Analysis and Consequence part of the essay. Main causes of unreliable or improper translation of some parts are these: 1- lack of scrutiny on the philosophical or historical terms; 2- lack of specialization on al-kindi and al-Farabi's philosophies and their books; 3- not employing any editor by press Hikmat on translator's work. Of course, we expected that Ruhallah Alemi as a university teacher and translator, must have been reviewed his translation. Performing this duty is a necessary condition in academic activities. Other aspect of this matter is a cultural-moral one that depicts our responsibility and faithfulness in teaching and research; a responsibility of a person who is linking the writer with the reader.