مجله پژوهش های راهبردی مسائل اجتماعی ایران
سال دوازدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 41، تابستان 1402)

In recent decades, there have been significant developments in immigration often referred to as the age of immigration. These developments highlight the increasing participation of women in the migration process and the rise of independent female migrants, a phenomenon known as the feminization of migration (Khaje Nouri & Sharifi, 2022). Research indicates notable changes in both quantitative and qualitative aspects of women's migration. In terms of quantity, women now constitute nearly half of all immigrants. Moreover, in terms of quality, women are no longer solely dependent immigrants; they now play a crucial and influential role in migration flows (Sadeghi & Valadvand, 2015). According to the latest statistics released by the United Nations, as of 2020, the proportion of immigrant women stands at 3.5% of the global population, while the proportion of immigrant men is 3.7% of the world's male population (21). In Iran, the representation of women in migration has increased from 45% during the period of 1986-1996 to 48.6% during the period of 2011-2016. Additionally, based on immigration and net immigration data from 2011-2016, Yazd Province is among the top four provinces in Iran that attract immigrants and is considered an appealing destination for both genders (Mushfiq & Khazaei, 2015). Despite the changing migration patterns in the country and the increasing number of women migrating in the past decade, there has been limited research conducted in this field. Furthermore, there is a scarcity of qualitative studies examining the migration experiences of women. Given that Yazd is recognized as one of the most immigrant-friendly provinces in Iran and a desirable destination for female immigrants, this research aimed to analyze the migration process of women from their origin to their destination. The primary objective of this study was to address questions like how women make decisions to migrate and settle in their destination, as well as what challenges and consequences they encounter in the host society and how they navigate through them.

The current research employed a qualitative methodology to investigate the process of women's involvement in migration flows. Given the research objective, the most suitable method for studying this process was grounded theory, utilizing a systematic approach developed by Strauss and Corbin (2008). The participants for this study were selected through purposeful sampling followed by theoretical sampling. The selection of participants aimed to ensure diversity in terms of age, marital status, literacy level, occupation, type of migration (independent or dependent), reasons for migration, and the provinces of origin. To ensure reliable data and gain a comprehensive understanding of the research dimensions, interviews were conducted until data saturation was achieved, meaning that no new information or themes emerged from the interviews. The primary data collection tool employed in this research was a semi-structured interview. Between August and November 2022, the interviews were conducted with 21 women, who had immigrated to Yazd from various provinces in the country. These women had resided in Yazd for a minimum of two years and possessed the aforementioned characteristics.

The findings indicated the initial stages of the atomization process experienced by the migrant women. This process was driven by their self-determination and was closely linked to their struggles in their places of origin. It manifested in various dimensions, including a continuous increase in suffering, a challenging life in their hometowns, and a breakdown of trust due to destabilizing conditions in their places of origin. Faced with these difficult circumstances, the migrant women had experienced a sense of detachment from their places of origin. In their quest to rebuild their lives and find personal fulfillment, they had actively sought to redefine their social networks in relation to their destination of migration. However, upon arrival at their destination, they had encountered challenges, such as a lack of cultural acceptance, economic limitations, and an isolating urban lifestyle. Consequently, they had been compelled to engage in transactional communication as a means of survival. The outcome of this process was the formation of a circle of defined, mutually beneficial, and secure social relationships. These relationships had been continuously shaped, expanded, or restricted based on the fluid conditions they had encountered.

In the last two decades, empowerment practices have gained recognition as effective approaches for organizations to enhance positive work outcomes by fostering employees' sense of competence, self-determination, meaningfulness, and influence (Maynard et al., 2014). Empowerment theory suggests that leaders play a crucial role in empowering employees (Maynard et al., 2012). Leaders have the ability to create an environment conducive to employees taking ownership of their tasks and surroundings (Stander & Coxen, 2017). Consequently, organizations must establish environments that enable individuals to maximize their potential and contribute value to the organization (Stander & Rothmann, 2009). Employees require leaders, who understand the importance of ownership and empowerment for their emotional and intellectual growth (Bhatnagar, 2005). Several studies have highlighted the significant role of work in psychological ownership, including research by Kim & Beehr (2018) and Knapp et al. (2014). Studies by Su & Ng (2019) and Yıldız et al. (2015) have explored the impact of participation in decision-making on psychological ownership. Additionally, Olckers & Enslin (2016) have demonstrated the role of trust in fostering psychological ownership, while Cheng et al. (2021) and Yıldız et al. (2015) have examined the influence of providing independence on psychological ownership. These studies indicate that empowering leadership behaviors are associated with followers' psychological ownership. Therefore, the present research aimed to investigate the role of empowering leadership dimensions exhibited by school principals in teachers' psychological ownership. Specifically, we sought to determine whether the empowering leadership dimensions of school principals significantly impacted teachers' psychological ownership and identify which dimensions had the greatest and least significant effects on psychological ownership.

The present study adopted a quantitative research approach, aligning with the research philosophy and the applied nature of the study. In terms of data collection and analysis, a descriptive method was employed, specifically utilizing correlation studies and structural equation modeling. The research population comprised all primary school teachers in Qorve City, totaling 548 individuals (350 women and 198 men). A sample of 225 participants (144 women and 81 men) was selected by using proportional stratified random sampling based on Morgan's table. The research methodology employed was correlation analysis.

The findings of the current study indicated that the dimensions of empowering leadership exhibited by the school principals had a significant and positive impact on the teachers' psychological ownership. The effects of these dimensions ranged from 0.13 to 0.24, with participation in decision-making and significance having the greatest and least effects, respectively. Collectively, the 4 dimensions of empowering leadership could explain 33% of the variance in the teachers' psychological ownership. The Importance-Performance Matrix Analysis (IPMA) conducted to determine the relative importance of the structures in the structural model revealed that all the four dimensions of empowering leadership exhibited high importance and high performance, falling within the consolidation area. Based on these findings, several suggestions were proposed to strengthen the effects of the empowering leadership dimensions of school principals on teachers' psychological ownership:1) Clarifying the role of teachers in societal growth and development, emphasizing their impact on the society
2) Providing necessary support and resources to enhance teachers' professional development
3) Fostering a safe and supportive environment in schools that encourages teachers to express their opinions on school-related matters
4) Empowering teachers with collaborative decision-making skills
5) Encouraging participation through the establishment of quality circles within the school
6) Analyzing the fit between teachers and their assigned tasks
7) Clearly defining the levels of independence and authority teachers have in their assigned tasks
8) Gradually delegating authority to teachers in solving school problems
9) Promoting transparency and honesty in the speech and actions of school principals
10) Institutionalizing a culture of positive and developmental responsibility within the school
It could be concluded that the creation, growth, and strengthening of teachers' psychological ownership were influenced by the school principals and their leadership. Therefore, the active application of empowering leadership with a focus on its dimensions could have positive effects on teachers' psychological ownership. To collect data, the researchers utilized the enabling leadership questionnaires developed by Ahearne et al. (2005) and the psychological ownership questionnaire developed by Olckers (2011). The descriptive analysis involved the use of frequency distribution tables, mean, and standard deviation. To test the research hypotheses, statistical techniques, such as the Pearson correlation matrix and structural equation modeling, were employed using the statistical software of SPSSv.25 and LISRELv.10.30. Additionally, the relative importance of the structures in the model was determined through the use of an IPMA.

In today's world, poverty continues to pose a significant challenge for numerous countries globally. Its adverse impact on various facets of society, including economic growth, social well-being, and human development, hinders endeavors toward sustainable progress, particularly in developing nations like Iran. Disturbing statistics reveal an unfortunate trend where not only is poverty steadily increasing overall in Iran, but it is also specifically on the rise within rural areas. Each passing year sees more people struggling to make ends meet and turning to charitable organizations for assistance. The establishment of the Imam Khomeini Relief Committee in February 1978 was a pivotal step toward addressing poverty and implementing measures to alleviate it. The organization's primary objective is to support deprived and needy individuals across Iran with the ultimate goal of eradicating poverty from the society. Assessing the effectiveness of this committee's policies is crucial for achieving its mission, especially considering its work in various rural areas throughout the country. Therefore, this research aimed to evaluate the success of these efforts thus far.‎

This study employed both qualitative and conceptual analysis methods to gather the necessary data. Data were obtained through document examination and interviews conducted with 23 clients and 5 informants of the relief committee. The research was conducted in rural Tangestan City situated within Bushehr Province with a focus on clients meeting specific criteria, such as having a household head younger than 50 years old, who was fully able-bodied, receiving support from the relief committee for at least 3 years, and being entirely financially dependent on the aid provided by the committee.
Through a conceptual analysis of the interviews, 5 primary themes emerged regarding the evaluation of poverty alleviation policies established by the aid committee. These main themes included the following:The theme of inadequate institutional performance highlighted the insufficient capability of current institutions in promoting economic development while simultaneously reducing poverty and inequality. This theme encompassed 3 sub-themes: failure to cater to basic client needs, overpricing clients through inflation, lack of transparency, and administrative corruption. Therefore, regular institutional improvements were required to increase participation levels, enabling progress within the society.
The theme of macroeconomic instability of society comprised 3 sub-themes: the inflationary economic structure of the society, financial obstacles related to banking, and the committee's weak finances coupled with ineffective communication practices towards other institutions. The current state had been primarily brought about due to Iran's economy heavily relying on oil for sustenance, along with a persistently high double-digit inflation rate over 4 decades.
The theme of acceptance of the culture of poverty emerged from 3 sub-themes: the absence of social empowerment for clients, a culture that accepted and perpetuated poverty, and a lack of demands made by clients to their committee. The sustained conditions faced by these individuals over time had fostered feelings of fatalism and learned helplessness, ultimately impeding progress towards alleviating poverty.
The underlying message of the theme of lack of effective facilitation programs was based on the fact that the relief committee's programs suffered from inadequacies in both quantity and quality, along with unequal distribution of opportunities and privileges. Moreover, there appeared to be a lack of effective employment strategies due to insufficient rural self-employment plans and short-term objectives by the relief committee.

This study revealed that the relief committee's efforts to reduce poverty in rural areas were inadequate across various sectors. In addition to implementing necessary economic reforms, the Imam Khomeini's Relief Committee must address banking barriers and correctly identify those truly in need of aid. Effective supervision of charitable institutions, increased community involvement through communication with other government agencies, encouragement of workforce development programs, and social counseling services are also recommended actions toward improving poverty alleviation outcomes. This research showed that while individual factors play a role in perpetuating cyclical poverty at micro-levels, more important are structural issues that determine success or failure when addressing policies related to reducing such inequalities within these communities.

Despite the attention given to the quality of life and well-being of the general population, relatively little focus has been placed on the quality of life of refugees and immigrants. This lack of attention stems from the fact that enhancing one's quality of life is one of the main motivations for migration. Immigrants often encounter new and discriminatory social and economic circumstances, including marginalization, minority status, socio-economic disadvantages, loss of social support, psychological distress, and difficulties in assimilating to the host culture. These factors have a profound impact on the well-being and quality of life of immigrants. In general, the quality of life experienced by immigrants is influenced by a combination of factors, some of which are specific to the individual immigrants themselves, such as their education, job skills, and mental and physical health, and others that are related to the host society, such as its cultural and economic conditions and policies towards immigrants. The interaction between these individual and societal aspects significantly shapes the quality of life of immigrants. Despite numerous studies conducted on the migration of Afghans to Iran, which have encompassed various aspects, such as identity, security, demographics, employment, mental health, women's status, quality of urban life, residential patterns, economic impacts, societal integration barriers, social distance, and social networks, there remains a dearth of research on the quality of life experienced by Afghan immigrants in Iran. The findings from several conducted research studies are still inconsistent. Despite the fact that Afghan immigrants have been living in Isfahan for a long time and that this province has got the third rank in terms of accepting Afghan immigrants, there has been no independent research conducted to assess their quality of life. This is significant considering the various consequences it can have on both the immigrants and the host society. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the quality of life of Afghan immigrants in Isfahan, including its various dimensions. Additionally, the study aimed to identify and analyze the social factors that can have an impact on life quality, while trying to understand their influencing mechanisms.

The current research utilized descriptive-analytical and field survey approaches. The statistical population for this study consisted of Afghan immigrants aged 18 years and above, who were residing in Isfahan City. According to the population census of 2015 conducted by the Iran Statistics Center, there were a total of 1,831,224 Afghan nationals in Isfahan Province and 88,866 in Isfahan City (Statistics Center of Iran, 2015). Due to the logistical challenges and inability to reach all individuals across various cities, the research was confined to Isfahan City, particularly Zainabiyah Region, where the largest concentration of Afghan immigrants was found. The sample size was determined to be 330 individuals by using SPSS Sample Power software. After a thorough review and elimination of incomplete questionnaires, the total number of 321 completed questionnaires was selected for analysis.
For measurement of a variable, the World Health Organization's short scale consisting of 26 items was utilized. This scale encompassed 4 dimensions: physical health (7 items), mental health (5 items), social relations (6 items), and environmental health (8 items). The general questions were made regarding health status and quality of life. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for this variable was determined to be 0.84. To assess religiosity, 17 items were employed and categorized into 4 dimensions: belief (4 items), rituals (6 items), emotion (4 items), and consequences (3 items). Cronbach's alpha coefficient for this variable was estimated to be 0.86. The research items adopted by William et al. (1997) were employed to quantify the perception of discrimination. This 8-item scale has been extensively utilized in various countries to assess the perception of discrimination of immigrant groups. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for this variable was approximated at 0.85. To measure this variable, the "short scale of social integration" (Holland and Grühn, 2018) was utilized. This variable comprised 12 items, which were categorized into 4 dimensions: social support, social satisfaction, social participation, and instrumental support. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for this variable was estimated at 0.72.

According to the current research findings, it could be concluded that the majority of immigrants in Isfahan City had an average to high rate of quality of life, including psychological, social, environmental, and overall quality of life aspects with an average score of 3.35. More than 60% of the immigrants expressed satisfaction with their quality of life. The immigrants' satisfaction could be attributed to their modest expectations and the presence of cultural, religious, and linguistic similarities with Iranians. This had resulted in their satisfaction with living conditions in Iran, leading to a lack of desire to return to their home country. Furthermore, the respondents' overall assessment of quality of life supported the aforementioned assertion.
The findings of the present study aligned with those of other studies mentioned in the relevant literature, e.g., those of van der Boor et al. (2020) and Correa-Velez (2020), regarding social integration. Social integration generally leads to increased participation, solidarity, and creation of social capital, which positively impact immigrants’ quality of life and well-being. Engaging in social activities and taking social responsibility are crucial for achieving psychological and social balances. Trust and mutual respect play essential roles in building relationships. Various factors, including work environment, contribute to establishing these relationships. Work environment is particularly important for the immigrant community. Work relationships facilitate the integration process of immigrants into the host society as they shape immigrants’ "self and identity" within the community and provide opportunities for their social interactions. Additionally, due to religious similarities and homogeneity between Afghan immigrants and the people in our country, religion may influence social integration.
Religiosity was found to have a direct impact on the immigrants’ quality of life and an indirect effect through enhancing their social integration with the host society. Given that the majority of Afghan immigrants residing in Iran were Shiites, their religious similarity could facilitate their assimilation into the host society. This finding is in line with that of the research conducted by Sigert (2020). Additionally, Powell et al. (2000) indicated that engaging in religious organizations can enhance self-confidence and alleviate feelings of isolation and despair. Religiosity promotes the accumulation of social capital through participation in various religious rituals and possessing higher social capital is associated with an improved quality of life.
Perception of discrimination hinders social integration and detrimentally impacts the quality of life. Immigrants' perception of discrimination directly decreases their quality of life and impedes social integration. Social integration, in turn, reduces social division between immigrants and the receiving society. Discrimination against refugees comprises two dimensions: institutional discrimination enforced by the government and host society and non-institutional or social discrimination enforced by the broader society. In general, discriminatory actions and behaviors by governments or individuals, as well as the mental experience and perception of discrimination among immigrants, have a detrimental impact on their quality of life. The findings of this study revealed that the perception of discrimination indirectly diminished the quality of life for immigrants by hindering their social integration into the host society. Other studies have also demonstrated a significant negative correlation between the perception of discrimination and the related concepts of quality of life, such as well-being and contentment (e.g., Zhang et al., 2009; Kuppens & van den Broek, 2022; Bender et al., 2022). However, contrary to the theoretical model adopted by some previous research (e.g., Bender et al., 2022), no significant relationship between religiosity and perception of discrimination was discovered in the current study.
To gain a comprehensive understanding of the Afghan immigrant population in Iran, further investigations should be conducted from various perspectives. Specifically, it is recommended to carry out intergenerational studies to assess the quality of life and determine the levels of satisfaction among the first, second, and third generations of Afghan immigrants in Iran. Additionally, qualitative studies focusing on the quality of life experienced by Afghan immigrants will be beneficial.

One of the pressing issues faced by universities today is "academic cheating," which has been causing significant and irreparable harm to the academic community due to its pervasive nature. Studies indicate that cheating shares similarities with other forms of deviant behavior and individuals, who engage in cheating, are more likely to repeat such an action and do it so more frequently. The rational choice theory of criminology provides insight into deviant behavior, suggesting that individuals act based on their personal assessments of the expected benefits, which are influenced by the anticipated costs and motivations associated with the behavior in question. This theory underscores the significance of the perceived benefits of academic cheating, such as avoiding exertion, attaining higher grades, experiencing reduced stress, and saving time, while weighing them against potential costs, such as the risk of being deprived of the necessary education for future success. Furthermore, the deterrence theory offers valuable insights, positing that individuals' awareness of the certainty, severity, and swiftness of punishment diminishes the likelihood of engaging in deviant behavior. Therefore, if students do not perceive the clear and consistent enforcement of penalties for cheating as outlined in university regulations, the likelihood of cheating will increase. This research aimed to sociologically investigate and elucidate the phenomenon of academic cheating among Mazandaran University students through the lenses of rational choice and deterrence theories.

The present study employed a survey-based, cross-sectional research method, utilizing a questionnaire as the primary data collection tool. The research targeted the entire student body of Mazandaran University enrolled in the year of 1401. The statistical sample consisted of 400 individuals, comprising both male and female students selected through random sampling with a 5% margin of error. A total of 435 questionnaires were distributed and after excluding any incomplete or distorted responses, 400 questionnaires were deemed suitable for evaluation and analysis. The sampling technique employed in this research was proportional stratified random sampling, wherein the students' gender was treated as a stratum and the sample size was allocated to each stratum in proportion to its size. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS software, employing mean comparison and multiple regression tests.

The prevalence of academic cheating poses a significant challenge to the primary mission of the educational institution. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate this deviant behavior. The theoretical contribution of this study lay in the application of rational choice theory and deterrence theory to elucidate academic cheating. The findings of this research revealed that informal punishment, moral beliefs, self-control, and utilitarian needs are influential factors in explaining academic cheating. In essence, rational choice theory posits that, notwithstanding various constraints, individuals are rational, proactive, and capable of assessing the costs and rewards of their actions based on the prevailing circumstances. Consequently, academic cheating is a product of individuals' cognitive evaluations of the costs and benefits associated with the perceived outcomes of such behavior within the contextual conditions of the situation. Furthermore, deterrence theory asserts that if the punishment for academic cheating is severe, certain, and immediate, a rational individual will weigh the potential gains and losses before engaging in cheating and if the losses outweigh the gains, they will refrain from cheating. Consequently, students, as rational actors, meticulously assess all circumstances and situations before engaging in academic cheating and if the perceived benefits outweigh the costs, they may choose to engage in this behavior, thus expressing their agency.

Family is a complex system of relationships, processes, and phenomena within the lives of its members, encompassing physical and psychological, economic and moral, social, and cultural aspects of society. A strong foundation for a healthy family can transform this social institution into a sanctuary for its members and a platform for human growth in all societies. In contemporary societies, the family has encountered various challenges due to shifts in its values and functions. Some of these challenges have impacted the relationships between spouses, leading to family breakdown. It is evident that the factors disrupting the functions of the family institution also contribute to numerous social harms. Despite extensive research on the family and its challenges in different societies and times, it is difficult to pinpoint specific and identical causes that threaten the foundation of the family. Therefore, understanding the social and individual factors that interfere with and affect family functions has always been a focal point of sociological studies and research, particularly in explaining the threats and causes of conflicts and differences, especially between couples. Based on individual and social circumstances, there are instances where couples, despite being dissatisfied with their relationships, are compelled to remain together, preserving the family structure outwardly but experiencing a decrease in emotional intimacy, which is often referred to as emotional divorce. This type of rupture in family relations has numerous direct and indirect consequences for both family members and society at large.

 This research was classified as an applied research as the researchers aimed to experimentally test theoretical concepts with the results intended for practical application in addressing challenges within the research topic. In terms of its temporal nature, this study was cross-sectional. The method of data collection employed was a survey with information gathered through reviewing the respondents' answers. Furthermore, it was a correlational study as it evaluated and measured the correlation between variables. The target sample for this research comprised all married individuals residing in the 5th, 7th, and 8th regions of Tabriz City during the period of 2022-2023. The determined sample size was 384 individuals calculated by using Cochran's formula from the total married population living in the researched areas, which, based on the 2015 census, amounted to 311,380 people. Sampling was conducted in a clustered manner and the data collection tool utilized was a questionnaire comprising a combination of standard questions and those formulated by the researchers.

The research findings revealed a significant and positive correlation between moral judgment and family breakdown. This suggested that when ethical standards are not grounded in rational reasoning and established definitions, but rather based on individual judgments regarding societal values and beliefs, ethical considerations become a source of disagreement and conflict among family members, thereby posing a risk to the cohesion of the family institution.Furthermore, the results demonstrated a significant and inverse relationship between adherence to beliefs and family disintegration. In other words, as adherence to beliefs increases, family breakdown decreases. Beliefs play a crucial role in marriage and are intertwined with the activities that spouses engage in together. When couples significantly differ in this aspect, the stability of their relationship diminishes, leading the family towards a conflict and eventual dissolution.