مجله ادبیات عرفانی
پیاپی 34 (پاییز 1402)

From the perspective of cultural semiotics, texts as cultural repositories, are the products of intercultural conditions and interactions, and represent the culture and its organizational structure. Over centuries, Islamic Mysticism and Sufism, as a collection of beliefs, practices and customs, permeated the layers of society and gradually evolved as a coherent culture within the framework of the comprehensive Islamic culture. This emerging culture systematically organized itself through the use of linguistic paradigmatic structures, particularly in the realm of mystical literature. To achieve a systematic understanding of the organizational structure of the culture of Islamic mysticism and Sufism, the first independent Persian text of this culture was explored using a descriptive-analytical approach. Through this examination, the semiosphere of mysticism and intercultural relations in Kashf-ol-Mahjub by Hujwiri was identified. The represented culture in this book exhibits a dual pattern, consisting of a “core” with cohesive symbols such as poverty, esotericism, the scientific nature of Sufism, veiling (the wearing of patched clothes), etc., to distinguish Self from Others, and a “periphery” that continuously interacts with others. The articulation of a specific Sufi worldview and its validation in theological and jurisprudential frameworks and their cited sources; compiling of the principles; Sufi leaders and sects in accordance with these principles; narrators and the various schools of thought in the linguistic and jurisprudential spheres; and discussions on topics such as the attributes of God, their classification, the contingent nature of these attributes; the oneness of God; divine occurrence, divine precedence; and the richness and independence of God in Kashf-ol-Mahjub reveal border spaces that constitute arena for intercultural exchanges. This central and peripheral space shapes the cultural identity of Sufism with internal coherence and dynamic external relationships.

The term “waaqeah” in Islamic mysticism refers to a state achieved through specific practices and conditions (such as seclusion, immersion in remembrance, and similar activities), through which the seeker attains a novel understanding and discovers an approach to the realm of meaning that illuminates its position in the journey of spiritual development. “Waaqeah” often manifests in forms of lights, colors, and similar phenomena and is interpreted and explained through the perspectives of the spiritual elders (pir). This research, following a definition and examination of the concept of “waaqeah” and an elucidation of its ideological significance, delves into the perspectives of essentialists and structuralists regarding the religious experience. Davis’s categorization of six types of religious experiences, emphasizing their mutually non-exclusive nature, is presented, followed by an explication of mystical waaqeah from the viewpoint of interpretative, quasi-sensory (emphasizing its realistic and non-illusionary nature), and mystical (studying the conduct of Kubrawiya sect) experiences. Finally, Katz's views on the contextualization of mystical experience are discussed. Katz posits that the mystical experience does not occur in a vacuum but is the result of the interaction between the mystic and beliefs, traditions, and other experiences and contexts. Additionally, the presence of a guide in shaping, directing, and interpreting the mystical experience is significant. This theory is applied to the domain of mystical events by examining the practices and conditions of “waaqeah” within a specific religious tradition, highlighting the role of the elders (guides) in shaping and attributing meaning to it. In each section of this research, references to mystical sources and narratives are utilized to expound on the presented concepts by mentioning “waaqeahs” from the mystic elders.

Following theology, anthropology is undoubtedly one of the most important issues in mysticism, and mystics have had a unique perspective and interpretation in this regard. Abu Abdollah Neffari, as one of these mystics, has presented his mystical experiences in numerous verses in the two books Al-Mawaqef and Al-Mukhatabat, using a highly intricate language. Hence, his anthropological approach can be inferred from these intuitive reports. Human recognition in the thought of this mystic has various dimensions, one of which involves the discussion of the human in relation to this world. The main question of this research is as follows: What are the characteristics of “this world’s man” in Neffari’s mystical thought? With this aim, the authors, using a descriptive-analytical method, extracted and compiled the “anthropological” content of his mystical thought with a focus on the verses related to “worldly human”. They have concluded that Neffari strongly emphasizes that humans exist in the intermediary realm between “Haq” (Truth) and “Maseva” (Deviation from the Truth), and this position is the most important factor in human affliction and trial. He also does not limit the examples of “maseva” to metaphysical beings and considers some aspects of human existence as examples of “maseva”.

The history of Persian literature owes the immortality and influence of its pure didactic and mystical topics in its various forms to the form of “masnavi” poetic genre. Masnavi structure stands as one of the most extensive forms of Persian poetry due to its distinctive feature in rhyming, witnessing the creation of some of the greatest literary masterpieces in the Persian language. The most effective approach to understand and fully comprehend these compositions and to articulate the points of divergence and commonality among them, is to delve into their form and structure. This research undertakes the examination of the external aspects of masnavis from the studied period and delves into the internal exploration of these collections, focusing on their form and structure. Accordingly, the text (the central core) and paratexts (preface and conclusion) of long didactic and mystical masnavis until the end of the seventh century AH are discussed and analyzed. The purpose of this article is to examine the form and shape prevailing in the text and paratext of long didactic and mystical poems in terms of their adherence to the literary traditions of the poets’ era. The authors, recognizing that literary works, as integrative discourses, presupposes the existence of a beginning, middle, and end, endeavor to examine the functions of paratextual elements in seven didactic and mystical masnavis (Hadigat al-Hadigat, Makhzan al-Asrar, Manteq-o-tteyr, Mosibat-Nameh, Ilāhī-Nāma, Bostan and Masnavi). Through the examination of these paratexts, the authors aim to highlight the functions envisioned for the use of these elements and articulate the unique features of Rumi’s Masnavi as the exemplar of masnavis.

The two terms, “faith” and “belief”, due to their common semantic field and widespread usage, are used interchangeably, without clear conceptual boundaries between them, not only among ordinary people, but also among elites, such as some poets and writers. However, they exhibit significant distinctions in their true meanings and concepts. In this regard, “faith holders” and “believers” have obvious differences in their perception of God and the way of communicating with Him, the way of perceiving and interacting with existence, as well as their perception of religion and religious experiences. In contrast to many poets inclined towards mysticism and gnosis who often did not perceive a distinction between faith and belief, Rumi, similar to most of the mystic Muslim intellectuals, places “faith” and “disbelief” in opposition and explicates their origin, causes of creation, and their impacts. In fact, he separates his path from the mystical poets preceding him. In Rumi's intellectual framework, which is similar to the views of philosophers such as Kierkegaard, faith is a fluid and ever-evolving matter, while belief is something fixed and static. Consequently, faith is an unlimited affair stemming from an individual’s experiential inclination towards God and is attained through the spiritual journey of the self. On the other hand, belief is established in community and society, evolving through various means such as individuals, books, documents, and exoteric developments. Faith belongs to the impossible, while belief belongs to the possible affairs. Believers are dogmatic and antagonistic, fearing that others challenge their convictions. However, faith holders are tolerant. Those in faith are always in an endless relationship with God and continue this relationship in love, while others have a transactional relationship with God, viewing their religion as a means to achieve worldly and otherworldly desires.

The journey of souls, which is referred to as the ascent, initiation, and ascension within the mythology of nations and monotheistic religions, represents an archetype aimed at salvation transforming the myth of descent into the myth of eternal return. Contrary to modern literature, the classical literature of Iran and Islamic mysticism are highly influenced by this metanarrative. The time period between the fourth to the sixth century, that is, from the interpretation of the Ascension of the Prophet of Islam adopting a philosophical approach to the journey of the speaking soul and the formation of the treatise of the birds by Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, and Suhrawardy until the formation of the Conference of the Birds by Attar, demonstrates that the structure of the Conference of the Birds in the Islamic mysticism and classical literature has been derived from the archetype of ascension. This article – through adopting a mythological criticism approach – seeks to explore a path to demonstrate the structural relationship of the archetype of ascent with the treatise of the birds and the Conference of the Birds. In the archetype of ascent and consequently in the treatise of the birds, the existence of a heavenly guide or a wise spiritual elder represents the action of a hero who intends to guide those who are seeking the truth. According to mythological criticism, this type is the same supreme mimesis in early modern literature putting an indisputable emphasis on concepts such as the hero’s journey, the guide, and the wise spiritual elder. Hence, there is a firm structural relationship between the genre of Maqamat (stations) and Ahwal (states), biographies, the Conference of the Birds, and the stories of ascension.