نشریه دین و قانون
سال دهم شماره 37 (پاییز 1401)

The discussion on the order of evidence in proving claims is an important topic in both jurisprudence and Islamic law, with various aspects of it being addressed in these fields. Considering that the evidence presented determines the extent and basis of a judge's ruling in judicial cases, assessing the probative value of evidence and understanding to what extent they can demonstrate the truth to the judge becomes highly significant. Regarding the order of evidence based on their probative value, it should be noted that our perception and understanding of the nature of each piece of evidence carry great importance. Many scholars have discussed this matter, and their perspectives have been taken into account in this article. This article aims to provide a general classification and hierarchy of the probative value of evidence in proving claims, considering the nature of each type of evidence. Ultimately, the hierarchy of evidence and its classification in terms of probative value and evidentiary power before judicial authorities can be summarized as follows: 1. Judicial knowledge, 2. Confession, 3. Written documents, 4. Testimony, 5. Expert opinion, 6. Judicial facts, 7. Legal presumptions, 8. Oath.

Energy plays a significant role in nations' production and economic advancement, making it a crucial factor in modern civilization. Therefore, investigating the relationship between energy consumption and national production in countries, including Iran, holds great importance. This article examines the hypotheses regarding the relationship between oil, gas, and coal consumption, and economic growth using time series data and conducting their stationarity tests from 1990 to 2018. The variables required for estimation include natural gas, oil, coal, and economic growth. The results accept the influence of oil and gas consumption on economic growth while rejecting the impact of coal consumption on economic growth

The right to education is considered one of the paramount human rights, acknowledged within the framework of both domestic Iranian legislation and international accords. In the pursuit of promoting, expanding, and reinforcing this foundational right, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a pivotal role within civil society, wielding the capacity to advance and enrich this right in collaboration with governmental authorities. Various mechanisms are delineated within the international and national norms of each specific country to facilitate this objective. Allusions to the explicit and implicit contributions of NGOs in the enhancement and development of education are evident in documents such as the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran and other overarching texts, including general system policies, educational laws, and regulations. This research endeavors to scrutinize the concept of the right to education and the role of NGOs in the advancement of this fundamental right, rooted in domestic legal frameworks and international human rights instruments.
The primary outcome of this research, conducted through a comprehensive literature review and employing an analytical-descriptive methodology, indicates that domestic laws inadequately address the necessity, significance, and operational aspects of NGOs in the holistic and specialized augmentation of education. On the international stage, UNESCO, as the scientific and educational organization of the United Nations, has proposed recommendations under the framework of "Education for Sustainable Development." However, given the worldwide significance of the educational discourse and the presence of distinct cultural norms in each nation, these recommendations may prove insufficient.

Citizen validation, grounded in the legal principles of distributive justice and the economic foundations of financial and economic transparency in commercial and transactional exchanges, has been a long-standing concept in certain countries' legal systems, particularly in the financial and economic domains. The idea of fair distribution of wealth, services, facilities, and opportunities based on citizens' merit and eligibility has been a topic of discussion among scholars and philosophers of politics and law since the early days of the formation of legal and political systems. This notion led to the practical implementation of providing and allocating services, facilities, benefits, and social rights in accordance with individuals' qualifications, merit, and deservingness. On the other hand, unlawful, abnormal, and unethical behaviors in various contexts such as crime, misconduct, negligence, indifference, and non-compliance with government regulations can result in the deprivation of certain social rights or the denial of access to specific facilities, services, and benefits.
Citizen validation and managed allocation of facilities, services, social rights, and entitlements based on defined criteria within the legal system of Iran are topics of discussion that reflect the legislative inclination toward accepting and endorsing the idea of proportionality. This inclination is evident both in terms of the purposes and objectives of legislation and in the implementation of the proportionality concept in specific instances and particular subjects.
This article is a research study on the process of implementing citizen validation and the intellectual and practical justifications within the legal system of Iran, along with the necessary legal requirements for the implementation of this initiative.

If several individuals are involved in a crime that results in Diyah, their liability is either equal or based on the degree of their influence on the crime. According to the famous opinion of the jurists and based on some narrations, all partners are equally liable for atonement (Diyah). However, the degree of their behavior's influence on the crime may differ. Some argue that each partner is responsible for the amount of their influence on the crime. The most crucial evidence for the latter view is the principle of personal punishment. The latter view is preferable, although equality in the amount of liability is observed in case of doubt.

Economic law has a different view on the issue of contractual liability, so that from the point of view of economic law, the goal is not to establish rules for compensation and punishment of the violator of the contract, but to compensate for the damage suffered. This view made the contract optional, which means that there is a free choice between paying damages and performing the same obligation. Based on economic analysis, fulfilling contractual obligations in creating a contractual relationship are not only objective, but this type of contract is seen as a function of efficiency and usefulness. Therefore, the present research seeks to investigate There are methods in contractual responsibility that can bring this category to the level of desirability. The result of this attitude will be that in every contract, the obligee can violate the contract and pay for its damages, but those who think it is beneficial to include more moral principles in contract law, do not agree with this point of view