نشریه رشد و یادگیری حرکتی - ورزشی
پیاپی 6 (پاییز و زمستان 1389)

The aim of this research was to examine the effects of PETTLEP-based imagery compared to more traditional imagery on learning badminton short service (backhand). For this purpose, 45 male students (age 12-14 years) were non-randomly selected and divided into three groups of 15 students each (they were beginners). The groups exercised in the following way: first group performed PETTLEP-based imagery and practical training. Participants in the PETTLEP imagery group applied the physical principles of PETTLEP imagery training. They were requested to imagine performing badminton short service wearing their complete badminton competition uniform; second group performed traditional techniques of imagery and practical training. Participants in the traditional imagery group engaged in a relaxation session before imagery; third group performed practical training. In 7th, 14th, 21st and 28th session, all subjects performed French test. The obtained data were analyzed by ANOVA and Tokey tests. The results showed a significant difference between PETTLEP-based imagery and traditional technique of imagery groups in learning badminton short service technique. There was a significant difference between traditional technique of imagery group and control group in learning badminton short service technique. In retention test, there was a significant difference between PETTLEP-based imagery with traditional technique of imagery and control group in learning badminton short service technique. It is suggested that coaches and physical educators use PETTLEP when possible.

The present study aimed to examine the effect of contextual interference on acquisition, retention and transfer of coincidence anticipation task with constant, increasing and decreasing speeds. 36 male physical education participants from Shahid Beheshti University were voluntarily selected and randomly divided into three groups (12 subjects each group) and performed coincidence timing tasks with Bassin anticipation timing. In this research, three separate experiments were used. Experiments consisted of constant speed, increasing speed and decreasing speed. Subjects participated in pretest, acquisition, blocked retention, random retention and transfer tests. Absolute temporal errors were analyzed by one-way ANOVA, ANOVA with repeated measures and Bonferroni post hoc tests (P<0.05). Research results showed contextual interference effect in the first experiment with constant speeds in all three phases. In the second experiment with increased speeds, contextual interference effect was observed in acquisition and random retention. In the third experiment with decreased speeds, contextual interference effect was conversely observed in acquisition and blocked retention in favor of blocked group. Generally, results showed contextual interference effect in constant speeds in random retention and transfer phases while this effect was not observed in increasing speeds. This effect was observed in decreasing speeds in only blocked retention phase. Regarding interpreted cognitive difficulties in decreasing speeds due to self-tasks and also difficulty of problem solving in random groups, the results were interpreted by increasing cognitive load, difficulty of perceptive task for decreasing speeds and the effect of reducing the effect of timing errors in tasks with increasing speeds (exceptions of the speed-accuracy exchange).

This study aimed to examine the relationship between anger rumination and aggression in a sample of Iranian athletes. A correlational analysis was performed to assess the kind of association between four subscales of anger rumination (angry afterthoughts, thoughts of revenge, angry memories, and understanding of causes) and different aspects of competitive aggression and aggressive behavior including physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, hostility, and indirect aggression. A total of 210 volunteer athletes (132 males, 78 females) from different Iranian sport federations were selected for this study. All participants were requested to complete the Persian version of the anger rumination scale (FARS) and the Competitive Aggression Questionnaire (CAQ). The results revealed that anger rumination subscales were positively associated with indices of competitive aggression. Anger rumination distracted using learned sport skills and techniques through weakening anger management and caused competitive aggression. Anger rumination also increased the possibility of aggressive behavior through distracting concentration on performing sport skills and techniques. Based on the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that anger rumination during competitive sports can cause aggressive behavior and reduce the possibility of sport achievements.

The aim of the current study was to investigate three volleyball skills in three training conditions of blocked, random and serial to reveal their effects in three phases of acquisition, retention and transfer. 60 amateur male students (mean age = 21.5 years, SD= 1.2) were voluntarily selected and randomly divided into three training groups (blocked, random and serial). A pretest was used to match the subjects. In the acquisition phase, the subjects of each group repeated three skills of pass tiller, forearm pass and overhead service for 378 times for 9 sessions. In three sessions in the training phase, 45 acquisition tests were completed. 48 and 72 hours after the last session, subjects participated respectively in 15 retention and transfer tests. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Tukey post hoc test were used to analyze data, to compare the means of pretest and tests in acquisition, retention and transfer phases of the three training methods. The results revealed a significant difference (P<0.001) in retention and transfer phases in favor of random (with more interference) and serial (with moderate interference) training methods compared to the block method (with lower interference) in all three skills. In the acquisition phase, blocked group had higher interference (P<0.001). There was no significant difference between random and serial methods in acquisition, retention and transfer phases.

Research suggests that people with high anxiety about their body shape participate in exercise less than others, and in the case of participation, their main motivation is internal motivation. Considering the prevalence of social physique anxiety and its strong negative influence on the motivation to participate in physical activity, it is necessary to study the effect of this factor and its interaction with the personality characters to determine the motivation to participate in physical activity. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of social physique anxiety (SPA) on the kind of motivation for exercise, and to determine intervening role of self-esteem. For this purpose, a sample of 265 undergraduate students of Zanjan Univeristy (156 females and 109 males) were randomly selected and completed a booklet consisting of "Social physique anxiety scale", "Rosenberg self-esteem scale", "sport motivation scale" and demographic information. The results of the study revealed that external motivation for exercise was higher in students with high SPA than those with low SPA (P=0.017). Lack of motivation was higher in students with high SPA than others (P = 0.008). In addition, it was observed that there was a significant interaction between SPA and self-esteem if affecting exercise motivation was concerned (P = 0.019). In conclusion, the present study indicated that SPA had an important role in determining the kind of motivation for participation in physical activity.

This research aimed to examine the effect of sequential stimuli technique on acquisition, retention and transfer of ocular motor sequence. First sequential stimuli, time record, response error software was designed. 60 right-handed novices (15-18 years) were divided into five groups (blocked – explicit, blocked – implicit, random – explicit, random-implicit and control). All groups performed a pretest and then (except control group) participated in five training sessions and in each session performed three blocks of ten trials with blocked and random methods. In explicit groups, participants were aware of the aim of task but in implicit groups, they were unaware. During the acquisition phase, control group were only in lab environment and the day after the acquisition, participants took part in retention and transfer tests. The data were analyzed using student-t, repeated measures and two-way analysis of variance tests. The finding showed that the subjects significantly improved in accuracy and time of response in the acquisition phase (P>0.05); but there was no significant different among groups. However, implicit learning groups progressed as much as the explicit learning groups; this finding explained the effectiveness of implicit knowledge in motor skills learning. The retention test showed that random practice was better than blocked practice in movement accuracy but the type of practice did not affect the retention of sequential reaction time. In transfer test, all groups showed transfer to the new sequence only in accuracy but not response time. However, findings showed blocked practice led to sensorimotor integration and timing, whereas random practice led to better stimulus-response association. Overall findings of this research supported this idea that learning that occurs in the context of interference can show retention and transfer to another task.

The aim of this study was to investigate the possibility of explaining psychological resilience based on self-efficacy in athlete and non-athlete university students. A sample of 403 (198 females and 205 males) athlete and non-athlete university students, who were selected via purposive sampling procedure, completed resilience and self-efficacy scales. Regression analysis, one-way ANOVA, and t test were used to analyze the data. The results showed that self-efficacy was the positive significant predictor of resilience. Athletes and non-athletes had different patterns to predict psychological resilience by self-efficacy. Also, it was revealed that athletes scored higher than non-athletes in resilience while there was no significant difference among athletes of different sport fields. Also, there was no significant difference in resilience between males and females. The present article ended with a discussion of findings and suggestion of more research in this area.

Attention is one of the effective factors when learning and performing motor skills. Focus of attention is a method to increase the efficiency and learning. Previous studies have shown that focus of attention plays an important role in learning and performing motor skills. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effect of the instruction of far and near external focus of attention on dynamic balance task performance. In this study, sixty male undergraduate students of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, who had taken the general physical education course in the second semester of 1388-89, were assigned randomly in three groups: far external attention group (attention to those signs far from the feet), near external attention group (attention to those signs near the feet) and control group (no attentional instruction). The stabilometer (Biodex) was used to collect the data. Each participant performed three 20-second trials in dynamic balance test. The obtained data were analyzed by descriptive statistics as well as inferential statistics such as one-way ANOVA and Duncan post hoc test. The results showed that far external attention group performed significantly better than control group while near external attention group did not reveal any significant difference compared to the control group.