mohammad hassan hatefi farajian

Although the utilization of chemical fertilizers could be viewed as the best solution in terms of plant productivity, this approach is often inefficient in the long-term. Therefore, application of organic manures is one of the most important strategies for plant nutrition compared to chemical fertilizers, especially in ecological management of crops. In recent years, the effect of exogenous organic amendments on soil properties has received renewed attention. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of organic and chemical fertilizers on growth characteristics and cucumber yield.

In order to evaluate the effects of different organic and chemical fertilizers on yield and growth characteristics of cucumber (Cucumis sativus cv. Super Dominus), a field experiment was conducted based on randomized complete block design with seven treatment and three replications at the Agricultural Research Station, College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, during growing seasons 2016-2017. The treatments included chemical fertilizer (200 kg ha-1 NPK, 100, 50 and 50 kg ha-1, respectively), cow manure (40-ton ha-1), vermicompost (10-ton ha-1), vermicompost + NPK (including 5-ton ha-1 vermicompost + 100 kg ha-1 NPK, 50, 25 and 25 kg ha-1, respectively), municipal solid waste compost (10-ton ha-1), plated organic fertilizer (10-ton ha-1) and no fertilizer. The traits such as plant length, number of main and sub branches, average fruit weight, number of fruits and the fruit yield per hectare were evaluated. Analysis of variance was performed by SAS 9.4 software, and means of different treatments were compared by LSD test at the probability level of 5%.

The effect of application of different fertilizer treatments was significant (p≤0.05) on the number of main and sub branches of cucumber. So, cow manure treatments and combination of vermicompost with NPK fertilizer showed the highest number of main and sub branches. Application of organic materials improves microbial activity and physical properties of the soil by increasing the water holding capacity in the soil and increasing the content of available plant nutrients. Therefore, it seems that the higher number of main and sub branches in cow manure treatment and other organic fertilizers is due to improvement of physical and nutritional conditions of the soil.All fertilizer treatments except municipal solid waste compost treatment compared with control significantly increased the yield of cucumber. So that, vermicompost + NPK, vermicompost, cow manure and NPK fertilizer showed the highest yield of cucumber with 35.41, 34.44, 34.5 and 31.59 ton ha-1, respectively, so increased yield by 47, 42, 33 and 28 percent compared with the control. However, the results of group comparison of treatments indicated that the yield of cucumber was not significantly different from that of organic fertilizers compared to NPK fertilizer and vermicompost + NPK, suggesting that nutrition management by organic fertilizers alone can be a very good alternative instead of applying chemical fertilizer in cucumber production. Also reported that application of organic fertilizers significantly improved the yield of tomato and cucumber.

The results of this study showed that cucumber growth and yield were significantly affected by the application of different treatments. So that, the highest and lowest of fruit yield were obtained in vermicompost + NPK and control treatments with corresponding values of 35.41 and 24.65 ton ha-1, respectively. Combined treatment of vermicompost and NPK, cow manure, vermicompost and NPK fertilizer had best results in this study. Since there was no significant difference between yields in these treatments and generally organic fertilizers compared to chemical fertilizer. Hence, given to environmental problems and high cost of chemical fertilizers, the use of vermicompost and cow manure can lead to good results in cucumber production in the field.

The history of saffron cultivation in the southern and central regions of Great Khorasan spans over 750 years. Iran has now become the world's largest producer of saffron, with the majority of cultivation taking place in this country. Various biological, agronomic, and environmental factors play a role in determining saffron yield. It is believed that a decrease in saffron yield can be attributed to factors such as drought, global warming, inefficient management, and a shift towards unsustainable agricultural systems. These factors have significantly impacted saffron yield, leading to a decline in both yield and farmers' income in recent years. Therefore, the main objective of this research was to evaluate and investigate the characteristics of saffron farmers, as well as the management factors that contribute to the reduction in saffron yield in the provinces of North, Razavi, and South Khorasan, which are major production hubs for this crop.
 
This research was conducted in a descriptive manner using a questionnaire. The questionnaires were compiled through face-to-face interviews with 56 saffron farmers in three provinces during the period of 2018-2019. The interviews were conducted in Faruj, Chenaran, Neyshabur, Kashmar, and Ferdows, with 13, 9, 12, 11, and 11 farmers, respectively. The farms included in the research varied in age from 1 to 8 years, with two farms of each age in each county, resulting in a total of 16 farms per county. The research focused on factors such as the age and education level of the farmers, farm area, weight range of mother corms, and total weight of mother corms in the first year. These factors were examined separately and compared to determine their impact on yield reduction. The figures were created using Excel software.
 
In general, it appears that saffron farmers in higher latitudes tend to be younger. The percentage of farmers with university education (including associate and bachelor's degrees) was 18% overall. The education level of farmers generally decreased with age, with younger individuals having relatively higher education levels compared to older individuals. Additionally, the trend observed is that farm size tends to increase with latitude, which can be attributed to younger farmers, uncultivated land, and fewer small landowners in the northern half of Great Khorasan. The northern half of Great Khorasan also benefits from a better climate and greater access to water. Overall, farmers predominantly used medium-sized mother corms (with 4-7.99 g) for planting, with Neyshabur and Kashmar counties having the highest percentage of farms using these corms (87.5% each). As education level increases, there is a decrease in the use of medium and large corms among farmers, potentially indicating less experience among individuals with higher education. However, university-educated farmers still used more medium-sized corms than large ones. The effect of desired traits, including the cultivated area and the total weight of cultivated mother corms in the first year, on the dried yield of stigma were significant.
 
The results of this research indicate that one of the main challenges in increasing saffron yield is the advanced age and low education level of farmers. It was observed that farmers predominantly used medium-sized corms, as small corms do not yield significantly in the first year, while very large corms may experience a decrease in yield in subsequent years. Therefore, it is recommended to organize training workshops and provide technical advice through agricultural organizations in the counties. Furthermore, establishing a connection between experienced saffron farmers and beginners, as well as experts and promoters, would enhance the general and technical knowledge of saffron farmers, ultimately leading to an increased yield in Greater Khorasan.

Intercropping as an approach for development of sustainable agriculture systems is pursuing the purposes such as creating ecological balance, further exploitation of resources, increase the quantity and quality of yield and reduce losses due to pests, diseases and weeds and reduce the dependence of farmers to pesticides, to maintain product quality and marketability. Jahani et al (2007) reported that intercropping of lentil and cumin has significantly increased dry weight of vegetative organs, biological yield, 1000-seed weight and number of seeds per cumin umbrella and seed yield. Legume/non-legume intercropping system due to the beneficial use of resources produces more yields. In review of about the fennel and fenugreek intercropping, intercropping of the two plants significantly increased the fennel seed yield compared with monoculture.

The experiment was conducted in 2014-2015 growing season based on randomized complete block design with three replications at Agricultural Research Station, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Experimental treatments were 25% mung bean + 75% fennel, 50% mung bean + 50% fennel, 75% mung bean + 25% fennel, monoculture of mung bean and monoculture of fennel. Species were sown at the same time in 12/06/2015 in rows with a distance of 50 cm. At harvesting time, dry matter, seed yield and yield components of these crops were measured. Yield advantages of intercrops over monocultures were compared by land equivalent ratios. Seeds of fennel were analyzed for essential oil content.  

The highest seed yield, biomass and essential oil of fennel for monoculture with 1460.4, 12286.4 and 50.4 kg per hectare respectively and the lowest values for 25% fennel + 75% mung bean treatment with 263.2, 5843.3 and 8.1 kg per hectare respectively were observed. Also, the highest seed yield and biomass of mung bean for monoculture with 2167.1 and 8900.5 kg per hectare respectively and the lowest values for 25% fennel + 75% mung bean treatment with 740.5 and 2540.5 kg per hectare respectively were observed. The highest essential oil contents of fennel with 3.56% was observed in ratio of 50% fennel + 50% mung bean and the lowest value was observed in 25% fennel + 75% mung bean with 3.1%. It seems that interspecific competition between fennel and mung bean due to the abiotic stresses (competition) led to increasing essential oil percent in intercrops. The highest essential oil yield of fennel was observed in monoculture with 50.4 kg/ha and the lowest value was observed in 25% fennel + 75% mung bean with 8.1 kg/ha. The highest mung bean harvest index was 28% in 25% mung bean + 75% fennel and the lowest was observed in 50% mung bean + 50% fennel with 23.5%. Also, the highest fennel harvest index was observed with 12% in monoculture and the lowest in 25% fennel + 75% mung bean with 4.5%. The highest value of total land equivalent ratio (1.07) was obtained in ratio of 50% mung bean + 50% fennel indicating 7 percent yield advantage of intercropping compared to pure stands of species of these two products compare to each other that represents of showing the more efficient use of land. The lowest value by intercrops of land equivalent ratio was observed in ratio of 25% mung bean + 75% fennel which was 9% lower than the monoculture.

In general, intercropping of fennel with mung bean, had positive effect on biological and seed yield of two species as well as percent and yield of fennel essential oil. So, in order to reduce the consumption of chemical fertilizers in sustainable agriculture and as for nitrogen biological fixation ability of mung bean, intercropping this plant with fennel can be increased resources efficiency and improve of the quality and quantity yield of fennel.

In conventional agriculture, crop production has gradually shifted from ecological production principles to economic approaches, which has led to the destruction of natural resources and land use change, as well as the reduction in resource consumption (Koocheki et al., 2016b). Satisfying the nutritional needs of a growing population whilst limiting environmental repercussions will require sustainable intensification of agriculture. The adverse effects of climate change are significantly decreasing yield and yield stability over time in current monocropping systems. We argue that intercropping, which is the production of multiple crops on the same area of land, could play an essential role in this intensification. Intercropping often increases resource use efficiency and agricultural productivity compared with growing the component crops solely and can enhance yield stability (Martin-Guay et al., 2018; Raseduzzaman & Jensen, 2017). In the case of an intercropping strategy, the growing period for the legume, as a cover crop, is longer to provide a high amount of fixed nitrogen and potential ground cover to compete with weeds (Vrignon-Brenas et al., 2018). The land equivalent ratio (LER) is often computed as an indicator to determine the efficacy of intercropping that measures land productivity. LER may be interpreted as the relative area required by sole crops to produce the same yields as achieved in a unit area of intercrop. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of relay intercropping as replacement series of three plant species such as chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), mung bean (Vigna radiate L.), and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), on the yield, yield components, and land equivalent ratio under climatic conditions of Mashhad.

A field experiment was conducted at the Agricultural Research Station of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, during the growing seasons of 2015-2016. For this purpose, a randomized complete block design with three replications was used. The treatments included sole cropping of chickpea (C), mung bean (M), and sugar beet (S), as well as intercropping with 25% L + 75% S, 50% L + 50% S, and 75% L + 25% S. The investigated traits of mung bean and chickpea were plant height, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, number of branches per plant, seed weight per plant, and 100-seed weight, as well as the number of hollow pods per plant, number of seeds per plant, biological yield, seed yield, and harvest index. For sugar beet, the traits investigated were root height, fresh yield of root, dry yield of root, dry weight of shoot, sucrose content, and sucrose yield. The land equivalent ratio of chickpea, mung bean, and sugar beet was calculated (Sullivan, 2003) as follows: LER = Y1/I1 + Y2/I2 + Y3/I3, where Y1, Y2, and Y3 represent chickpea, mung bean, and sugar beet yield in intercropping, and I1, I2, and I3 represent chickpea, mung bean, and sugar beet yield in mono-culture, respectively. SAS 9.2 was used for analysis of variance. All the means were compared according to Duncan's test (p ≤ 0.05).

The results showed that the effect of relay triple intercropping arrangements of three species, such as mung bean and chickpea with sugar beet, was significant on yield components and seed yield, biological yield (p ≤ 0.05). The highest seed yield of chickpea and mung bean (2912 and 1247.83 kg/ha, respectively) and biological yield (6237.5 and 6816.7 kg/ha) were observed in sole culture, respectively. Also, the highest amount of fresh root yield was related to its sole cropping with 65242 kg/ha. The highest and lowest LER were calculated for 75% S + 25% L (with 1.53) and 25% S + 75% L (with 0.94), respectively.

Intercropping systems using ecological principles are one of the sustainable solutions to choosing plants suited to the needs, and competitiveness is very important. According to the results, relay triple intercropping of chickpea, and mung bean with sugar beet can be considered as ecological management and ecological intensification in the agroecosystems.

One way to create sustainability and maintain the health of the agricultural ecosystems is to use intercropping. There are many reports on the effect of intercropping on population decline and increasing weeds diversity. In a study at all intercropping ratios, the dry weight of weeds was lower than the monoculture of two species of Sweet Corn and Mung Bean (Gholi Nejad et al., 2018). It was also reported that in intercropping, weed diversity increased compared to monoculture, but biomass decreased (Patience et al., 2013). Abadian et al, (2014) also showed that cowpea in additive intercropping with basil, reduced the population and biomass of weeds compared to monoculture of basil. This study was designed and conducted with the aim of studying the effect of relay triple intercropping of Sugar Beet with Chickpea and Mung Bean on density, dry weight and biodiversity of weeds in Mashhad weather conditions.
 
This experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Research Farm of Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the growing season of 2015-2016. Treatments were 25% Chickpea (Mung Bean)+75% Sugar Beet, 50% Chickpea (Mung Bean)+50% Sugar Beet, 75% Chickpea (Mung Bean)+25%, Sugar Beet and monoculture of Chickpea (Mung Bean) and Sugar Beet. Legumes varied depending on the growth season, at the end of winter, Chickpea was intercropped with Sugar Beet and after harvesting Chickpea, Mung Bean was replaced by chickpea as a thermophilic plant in the late spring in the same rows of chickpea planting. During the growing season, composition of weed species together with weed density and dry matter were measure at 2 time before and after closing the canopy in randomly sampled 1×1 m2 quadrates. Using the species frequency Margalef richness index and several diversity indices including Shannon-Weiner and Simpson’s index were calculated for each treatment.
 
The highest range of weeds relative density was obtained in the first stage of sampling for Lamb's Quarters (29.81-68.1%) and in the second stage of sampling for Prostrate Pigweed (22.45-43.96%). The highest weed density at first and second sampling was observed in monoculture of sugar beet with 178 plants per square meter and the ratios of 75% chickpeas (Mung Bean)+25% sugar beet with 84 plants per square meter. Also, the highest biomass of weeds in the first and second stages of sampling was observed in monoculture of chickpeas (Mung Bean) with 48.72 g/m2 and the monoculture ratios of sugar beet with 40.49 g/m2. The highest Margalef species richness index was observed in 75% Chickpea (Mung Bean)+25% Sugar Beet and 25% Chickpea (Mung Bean)+75% Sugar Beet with 2.83 and 4.29 in the first and the second stages of sampling, respectively. The highest Shannon-Wiener diversity index was observed in 75% Chickpea (Mung Bean)+25% Sugar Beet and 50% Chickpea (Mung Bean)+50 % Sugar Beet with 0.6 and 0.76 in the first and the second stages of sampling, respectively. Finally, the highest Simpson’s diversity index was observed in 75% Chickpea (Mung Bean)+25% Sugar Beet and 50% Chickpea (Mung Bean)+50% Sugar Beet with 0.68 and 0.796 in the first and the second stages of sampling, respectively.
 
In relay triple intercropping ratios through more shading and space, the conditions for weed growth became more difficult and intercropping ratios reduced their growth. So that in total in two sampling dates, the highest density and biomass of weeds were observed in the monoculture ratios of sugar beet and the monoculture ratios of chickpeas (Mung Bean). In general, with the increase of plant diversity in the agricultural ecosystems, fewer ecological niches have been provided to weeds, which reduces the number and density of weed species. The best cultivation ratios to increase the diversity and species richness of weeds in the first sampling date was 75% chickpeas (Mung Bean)+25% sugar beet and in the second sampling date was 50% chickpeas (Mung Bean)+50% sugar beet. Based on this conclusion, intercropping can be mentioned as an effective tool to increase biodiversity and reduce the density and biomass of weeds.

Diversification through the use of intercropping systems is known to enhance stability. Intercropping is potentially able to reduce pests and weeds, increase the system production and increase the exploitation of available environmental resources, compared to monocultures. Ronald and Charles (2012), stated that weeds biomass decreased in the intercropping of maize and squash, due to squash ghosting on weeds. They also reported that the intercropping of pelargoniums (Pelargonium sp.) and mint (Mentha arvensis L.) decreased weed growth and biomass.

This experiment was conducted in 2014-2015 growing season based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at Agricultural Research Station, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Experimental treatments were 1 row lettuce + 1 row alyssum (1:1), 2 row lettuce + 2 row alyssum (2:2), 3 row lettuce + 3 row alyssum (3:3), monocultures of lettuce and alyssum. Alyssum transplants were sown on 08/04/2015 and lettuce transplants were sown on 21/04/2015 in rows with a distance of 50 cm. During the growing season, composition of weed species together with weed density and dry matter were measure at 2 time in randomly sampled 0.6×0.6 m quadrates. Using the species frequency Margalef richness index and several diversity indices including Shannon- Weiner and Simpson’s index and species evenness were calculated for each treatment.

At first and second sampling, the highest density of weeds was observed in 2 row Lettuce + 2 row alyssum (2:2) with 282.4 and 122.03 plant per square meter, respectively. The lowest density of weeds was observed through the first and the second sampling, respectively, in Lettuce monoculture with 111.11 plant per square meter and in 1 row lettuce + 1 row alyssum (1:1) with 41.66 plant per square meter, respectively. In the first sampling, highest and lowest the Shannon-Wiener diversity index were observed in 2 row lettuce + 2 row alyssum (2:2) and 3 row lettuce + 3 row alyssum (3:3) with 0.53 and 0.35, respectively. In the second sampling, highest and lowest the Shannon-Wiener diversity index were observed, in 1 row lettuce + 1 row alyssum (1:1) and 2 row lettuce + 2 row alyssum (2:2) with 0.37 and 0.12, respectively. Also, in the first sampling, highest and lowest the Simpson’s diversity index were observed, in 2 row lettuce + 2 row alyssum (2:2) and 3 row lettuce + 3 row alyssum (3:3) with 0.66 and 0.44, respectively. In the second sampling, highest and lowest the Simpson’s diversity index were observed, in 2 row lettuce + 2 row alyssum (2:2) and alyssum monoculture with 0.46 and 0.05, respectively. In the first sampling, highest and lowest the Shannon-Wiener evenness index were observed, in 2 row lettuce + 2 row alyssum (2:2) and 3 row lettuce + 3 row alyssum (3:3) with 0.41 and 0.25, respectively. In the second sampling, highest and lowest the Shannon-Wiener evenness index were observed in lettuce monoculture and 2 row lettuce + 2 row alyssum (2:2) with 0.31 and 0.11, respectively. In the first sampling, highest and lowest the Margalef richness index were observed, in lettuce monoculture and 3 row lettuce + 3 row alyssum (3:3) with 1.48 and 0.98, respectively. In the second sampling, highest and lowest the Margalef richness index in 1 row lettuce + 1 row alyssum (1:1) and alyssum monoculture with 1.63 and 0.53, respectively.

The results showed that the ecological characteristics of ecosystems such as diversity and density of weeds were affected by row intercropping patterns. In almost all cases except Margalef species richness index, intercropping 2 row lettuce + 2 row alyssum was better compared to other patterns of cropping. It can be concluded that the most important advantage of intercropping is stability of canopy structure in terms of weeds and crop population and therefore enhancing the competition ability of the crops.

The use of intercropping as an effective component in sustainable agriculture, while increasing the ecological and economic diversity, cause increasing yield per unit area, yield stability under adverse environmental conditions, increasing the quantity and quality of the product, increasing water use efficiency, control of soil erosion, reducing pesticides use and increasing stability in agroecosystems. Plants from the family of legumes are among the plants that have a special place in intercropping because of their nitrogen fixation ability. Usefulness of intercropping cultivation of sweet corn and green bean has been reported to be better than monoculture. This study was designed and conducted with the aim of studying the effect of replacement and additive intercropping green bean with bell pepper on yield, yield components and land equivalent ratio in Mashhad weather conditions. 

The experiment was conducted in 2015-2016 growing season based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Research Farm of Agriculture Faculty, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Experimental treatments were 25% green bean+75% bell pepper, 50% green bean+50% bell pepper in replacement intercropping, 20% green bean+100% bell pepper and 40% green bean+100% bell pepper in additive intercropping and monoculture of green bean and bell pepper. Green beans have planted by seed and bell pepper transplants were sown at the same time in June 2016 in rows with a distance of 50 cm. In 4-leaf stage, green bean was thinned with an optimum density of 20 plants per square meter. In addition, the spacing on the row was considered 30 cm for transplants of bell pepper; in this case, its optimum density was 6.66 plant per square meter. At harvest time, green pod yield for green bean, fruit yield for bell pepper, other yield components and plant dry weight for two plants were measured, and land equivalent ratios were also calculated.

The highest green pod yield and plant dry weight for green bean with 57921.7 and 1051.03 kg ha-1, respectively, was observed in monoculture and the lowest values for 20% green bean+100% bell pepper with 11252.5 and 525.8 kg per ha, respectively. With the increase in the presence of green bean in replacement and additive intercropping, the green pod yield of green bean increased due to increasing of biological nitrogen fixation. For bell pepper, the highest fruit yield with 32766.7 kg ha-1 was observed in monoculture and the highest plant dry weight with 7816.6 kg ha-1 was observed for 75% bell pepper+25% green bean and the lowest fruit yield was obtained for 50% bell pepper+50% green bean and 100% bell pepper+20% green bean with 21183.3 and 21886 kg ha-1, respectively, and the lowest plant dry weight was obtained for 50% bell pepper+50% green bean with 3533.33 kg ha-1. Due to the fact that the highest number of fruits per plant was observed in monoculture of bell pepper, therefore, monoculture has higher fruit yield because it has more space for plants. The highest value of total land equivalent ratio (1.28 and 1.25) was obtained in ratios of 40% green bean+100% bell pepper and 50% green bean+50% bell pepper, respectively, indicating 28 and 25% yield advantage of intercropping compared to pure stands of species of these two plants. The lowest value of total land equivalent ratio (0.86) was observed in ratio of 20% green bean+100% bell pepper.

Comparison of different patterns of replacement and additive intercropping showed that cultivation pattern of 25% green bean+75% bell pepper was superior for most of the traits evaluated in green bean and bell pepper compared to other patterns. Additive intercropping pattern of 40% green bean+100% bell pepper had the highest total land equivalent ratio (1.28) which indicate the beneficial effect of mixed cropping pattern over pure cropping. Since green bean through biological nitrogen fixation, leads to reduction in the use of chemical fertilizers, intercropping of this plant with other plants such as bell pepper can increase the resources efficiency and improve yield quantity for bell pepper.

In order to study the effect of row intercropping patterns of lettuce and alyssum economic yield and productivity indices, a field experiment was conducted as a completely randomized blocks design with three replications during growing in 2014-2015 at Agricultural Research Station, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Treatment included 1 row of lettuce + 1 row alyssum (1:1), 2 rows lettuce + 2 rows alyssum (2:2), 3 rows lettuce + 3 rows alyssum (3:3) and their monoculture. The results showed that the effect of row intercropping patterns of lettuce and alyssum was significant on fresh weight of both crops. The highest fresh weight of lettuce and alyssum was observed in monoculture with 36200 and 5909.2 kg per hectare, respectively. The highest total land equivalent ratio (1.04) was obtained from 2:2 treatment, indicating 4% yield advantage of intercropping and represents a more efficient use of land in this cropping pattern compared to the monoculture of two crops. The highest competition index was achieved from 3:3 treatment (2.96). In addition, the highest system productivity index was obtained in row intercropping pattern 2:2 with 35466.5. Therefore, it seems that the row intercropping pattern of 2:2 was higher in land equivalent ratio and as well as system productivity index compared to other row intercropping patterns to obtain the highest yield and income than monoculture.