cognitive functions

Patients with refractory epilepsy may benefit from epilepsy surgery. However, cognitive decline following epilepsy surgery is a significant concern. In this study, we investigated the effect of epilepsy surgery on cognitive function. In this pre-post study, we used a census method to include 15 patients diagnosed with intractable epilepsy based on International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) criteria, aged 10-65 years, and eligible for epilepsy surgery. We used the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) and Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) to evaluate patients’ cognitive function. The Wilcoxon test was used to compare cognitive function before and one month after surgery. Fifteen patients (mean age: 34.2 ± 11.1) were included. The Wechsler Symbol Digit Modalities Test and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)/Condition 2-1 (3.26 ± 1.83 to 4.13 ± 2.03, +26.7%, P = 0.01) and WCST/Condition 2-2 (3.33 ± 2.05 to 3.86 ± 2.03, 15.0%, P = 0.021) were the only tests in the total population that showed significant improvement. RAVLT/Step 1-5 (31.00 ± 10.87 to 33.72 ± 13.12, +8.8%, P = 0.02), RAVLT/Step 6 (6.00 ± 3.06 to 7.36 ± 3.66, +22.7%, P = 0.04). Trail Making Tests (TMT)/Number Sequencing (93.40 ± 52.24 to 68.50 ± 50.54, -26.7%, P = 0.028), WCST/Condition 1-1 (3.63 ± 1.91 to 4.09 ± 2.25, +12.7%, P = 0.023), WCST/Condition 2-1 (2.90 ± 1.70 to 3.72 ± 2.10, +28.3%, P = 0.039), and WCST/Condition 2-2 (3.36 ± 1.91 to 3.90 ± 2.02, +16.1, P = 0.014) demonstrated significant improvements in patients who underwent right-sided surgery. The only significant improvement in the left-sided surgery group was the TMT/switching score (175.50 ± 70.00 to 128.50 ± 74.24, -26.8%, P < 0.05). Surgery can benefit patients with refractory seizures. We observed that surgical treatment of epilepsy did not impair cognitive function. Postponing epilepsy surgery because of concerns about cognitive deterioration is unnecessary. However, it is important to note the limitations of our study, and future larger studies are needed to confirm and extend our findings.

The Cell phones are a major part of people's lives in contemporary societies. Might their radiation be able to affect some cognitive functions while people drive? This study aims to investigate the effect of cell phone radiation on the brain’s cognitive functions.

 Forty female students without depression or anxiety volunteered in the cross-sectional study. During one session, the volunteers were randomly exposed to cell phone radiation (20 participants in the first and 20 participants in the second). Participants performed four cognitive tests in each session. A p-value of less than 0.05 was taken as the cut-off point to consider a statistically significant result.

 In the congruent part of the Stroop test, the reaction time (RT) was reduced in both groups during the time volunteers were exposed to radiation and there were significant differences between sessions in both groups (P=0.005 and P<0.001). These differences were significant between the two groups in different sessions. However, the number of errors decreased during exposure to radiation and this difference was significant in the first group (P=0.015). In the incongruent part of the Stroop test, the treatment showed that the radiation of mobile phones had a significant effect on the reduction of RT (P<0.001).

 Based on this study, it seems that cell phone radiation waves have a limited effect on RT, cognitive and executive function. Therefore, traffic accidents that occur during a mobile phone conversation might be solely due to the division of attention rather than a direct effect of cell phone waves.

Tinnitus is a prevalent condition often leading to disruptions in attentional functions. The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on cortical attention networks has yielded inconsistent findings.  This study aimed to examine the influence of tDCS on patients suffering from tinnitus on the efficacy of alerting, orienting, and conflict, as gauged by the Attention Network Test (ANT).  30 tinnitus patients with chronic bothersome tinnitus longer than 6 months with moderate and high severities were placed into two separate groups at random. The control group (n=15) underwent sham tDCS, while the treatment group (n=15) received active tDCS, with the anodal electrode placed over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and the cathodal electrode over the right DLPFC. The ANT and the Electroencephalography (EEG) recording were used before and after interventions. The differences were analyzed using the MANCOVA test.  There was a significant difference (P<0.01) between the control and tDCS groups only in terms of the mean post-test scores of conflict. However, no significant difference was observed in the means of alerting and orienting. This suggests that tDCS primarily influenced the conflict index, leading to its enhancement. EEG recording indicated a variety of significant changes in various frequency bands in different channel locations. Theta and high beta showed no significant difference in any channel, and most changes happened in the form of an increase in high alpha after tDCS. Absolute Power in theta and high beta frequency ranges showed no significant difference in any channel, and most changes in Absolute Power happened as an increase in high alpha frequency after tDCS.  tDCS potentially improves the attentional network in patients afflicted with tinnitus. More research is required to draw definitive conclusions, especially since only conflict demonstrated significance in the ANT test.

Research conducted over the years has established that artificial light at night (ALAN), particularly short wavelengths in the blue region (~400–500 nm), can disrupt the circadian rhythm, cause sleep disturbances, and lead to metabolic dysregulation. With the increasing number of people spending considerable amounts of time at home or work staring at digital screens such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops, the negative impacts of blue light are becoming more apparent. While blue wavelengths during the day can enhance attention and reaction times, they are disruptive at night and are associated with a wide range of health problems such as poor sleep quality, mental health problems, and increased risk of some cancers. The growing global concern over the detrimental effects of ALAN on human health is supported by epidemiological and experimental studies, which suggest that exposure to ALAN is associated with disorders like type 2 diabetes, obesity, and increased risk of breast and prostate cancer. Moreover, several studies have reported a connection between ALAN, night-shift work, reduced cognitive performance, and a higher likelihood of human errors. The purpose of this paper is to review the biological impacts of blue light exposure on human cognitive functions and vision quality. Additionally, studies indicating a potential link between exposure to blue light from digital screens and increased risk of breast cancer are also reviewed. However, more research is needed to fully comprehend the relationship between blue light exposure and adverse health effects, such as the risk of breast cancer.

Binaural beat (BB), as a non-invasive auditory beat stimulation type, has found its potential applications in cognitive domains. This review presents a proper summary to deepen our understanding of the soundness of the BB technique by looking into its applications, possible mechanisms of action, effectiveness, limitations, and potential side effects. BB has been claimed to improve cognitive and psychological functions such as memory, attention, stress, anxiety, motivation, and confidence. We have also looked into preclinical and clinical research studies that have been performed using BB and proposed changes in the brain following the application of BB stimulations, including EEG changes. This review also presents applications outside the cognitive domain and evaluates BB as a possible treatment method.

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common form of focal epilepsy and increases the risk of cognitive impairment, negatively impacting the quality of life of affected individuals.

This study aimed to investigate cognitive function in patients with low socioeconomic status affected by TLE and identify factors influencing such function.

This case-control study, conducted between July 2021 and August 2022, compared the cognitive function of 40 patients affected by TLE to 92 healthy controls. The Montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA) was used for neurocognitive evaluation. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 25.0 for Windows.

The mean age of the patient group was 33.35 years, compared to 35.37 years in the control group. Moreover, 70% of patients affected by TLE displayed cognitive impairment and demonstrated lower performance in cognitive functions than the control group (P < 0.05). Significant correlations were identified between overall MoCA scores and several factors, including seizure frequency, educational level, polytherapy, disease duration, and self-esteem scores (P < 0.05). Multivariate analysis revealed that seizure control and higher educational level were statistically significant predictors of overall MoCA scores in patients affected by TLE.

In low-income patients affected by TLE, seizure control and a higher educational level emerged as predictors of cognitive performance. These findings underscore the importance of identifying and managing comorbidities and the need for tailored cognitive rehabilitation programs for this population.

Cognitive games are one of the effective ways to improve the working memory of borderline students. The game plays an effective role in the development of students, and during the game, you can find out many characteristics, problems, and growth of borderline students. The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive games on the working memory of sixth-grade borderline students in Saqqez City, Iran.

The research method was semi-experimental with pretest-posttest, with a control group. The statistical population included borderline students studying in the sixth grade of schoolsinSaqqezCity, Kurdistan Province, Iran,in the academic year of 2021-2022. 24 borderline students were selected purposefully and randomly placed in two groups of 12 people, intervention and control. The educational program of cognitive games such as Lomocyte and Tetris was conducted in 8 sessions of 60 minutes twice a week forthe test group. Then the simultaneous post-test was conducted for both performance groups and the data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and SPSS software.

Cognitive games improved memory (P < 0.01), and they also caused the expansion of active memory, central processing, phonological loop, and visual-spatial memory.

According to the results of this research and the importance of improving working memory, it is suggested that cognitive games be used in schools and medical centers to improve the working memory performance of borderline students.

Stroke leads to many symptoms, such as defects in motor, sensation, language, and cognitive functions, which may help patients recover sooner using complementary techniques. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate depression symptoms, motor learning, and cognitive function after transcranial direct current stimulation in patients with ischemic stroke.

The current randomized controlled clinical trial was conducted on patients with ischemic stroke in Zanjan City in 2019-2020. 35 patients were randomly selected and assigned to the tDCS (12), Sham (12), and Control (11) groups. The Fugl-Meyer Assessment, Hamilton depression symptoms test, Montreal Cognitive Assessment, and Mini-Mental State Examination were used for evaluation. The first group received consecutive anodal stimulation in M1damH+Left-DLPFC areas, 12 sessions of 60 minutes, the second group received Sham-tDCS, and the third group (the control group) did not receive any intervention. The Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multivariate covariance analysis using SPSS 23 software.

A significant difference was observed between the study groups after the intervention and one month later in motor function, depression symptoms, and cognitive function (p=0.001). According to the paired comparison, the differences between the tDCS group and each of the sham and control groups were bigger. Still, no significant difference was detected between the control and sham groups in these outcome variables.

tDCS leads to the improvement of motor learning, cognitive functions, and depression symptoms in stroke patients, and its effects remain significant after the intervention.

Animal studies in recent years have shown that a Western diet style (WD-style) which is high in saturated fat and refined carbohydrates causes obesity, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, results demonstrated that it can damage the structures that make up the nervous system. Accordingly, there is an evidence that systemic changes associated with the Western diet lead to blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, microglia activation, and the development of neuroinflammation. These changes are then followed by synaptic transmission dysfunction, neurodegeneration, and finally memory and cognitive deterioration. This review summarizes research on the mechanisms that show Western diet consumption is associated with cognitive impairment, with emphasis on learning and memory functions that depend on the integrity of the hippocampus.

This study aimed to investigate and compare the efficacy of cognitive‑motor rehabilitation (CMR) with methylphenidate on cognitive functions and behavioral symptoms of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and specified the near‑transfer and far‑transfer effects.

The research was semiexperimental with posttest and follow‑up assessments, in a single‑blind design. Forty‑eight boys with ADHD, aged 9–12, were selected conveniently regarding the inclusion/exclusion criteria, matched base on severity and Intelligence quotient (IQ) and were randomly assigned to CMR (n = 16), methylphenidate medication (MED, n = 16), and placebo CMR groups (PCMR, n = 16). CMR and PCMR received 20 3‑h training sessions, and the MED group received 20 or 30 mg/day methylphenidate. Tower of London (TOL), Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham, Version IV Scale (SNAP‑IV), Wechsler’s digit span and mathematic subscales, dictation test, and restricted academic situation scale (RASS) were completed at posttest and follow‑up. The data were analyzed by repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance.

CMR outperformed PCMR on forward digit span, backward digit span, ToL score at both posttest, and follow‑up (P < 0.05). CMR scored lower than MED on ADHD‑PI and ADHD‑C at both posttest and follow‑up (P < 0.05). Moreover, CMR outperformed MED on dictation at both assessment phases (P < 0.01) and RASS at the follow‑up phase (P < 0.05). CMR outperformed PCMR on mathematics at post‑test (P = 0.038) and also, in dictation and RASS, at both post‑test (P < 0.001) and follow‑up (P < 0.05).

CMR Improves near‑transfer cognitive functions and behavior symptoms of ADHD as much as MED, but only CMR has more generalizable and endurable improvement on complex Efs and academic performance (far‑transfer effects).

Dietary patterns are receiving more attention as a potential method for preventing cognitive deterioration. In this line, Mediterranean￾dash intervention for neurodegenerative delay (MIND) diet is a pattern exclusively designed to protect the brain and delay brain damage. This study determined the score of adherence to the MIND dietary pattern in the elderly with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and its relationship with cognitive functions and metabolic factors. In a cross-sectional study performed in Sina Clinic of Arsanjan, Iran, 60 people with T2DM were randomly enrolled. Adherence to the MIND diet pattern (scored as 0 to 15) was computed and the participants took cognitive tests by Persian paper and pencil cognitive assessment package (PCAP), and their scores were recorded. Blood sampling and biochemical tests and blood pressure were measured for participants.  The correlation between score of adherence to the MIND dietary pattern with blood pressure was inversely significant (p<0.0001). The correlation between MIND dietary pattern and cognitive functions were not significant. The correlation between the score of adherence to the MIND diet pattern and biochemical factors was negative and not significant. Our findings suggest a significant inverse correlation between MIND diet score and blood pressure. However, no significant correlation was observed between the score of adherence to this dietary pattern with biochemical and cognitive factors in the elderly with T2DM.

The central melanocortin system is among those that plays a key role in the homeostatic regulation of energy balance and eating disorders. This study investigated the effect of melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) agonist setmelanotide (RM-493) on changes in metabolic and cognitive functions. Thirty two male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 4 groups including those fed with standard laboratory food and given phosphate buffered saline (PBS, ND group); fed with western-type diet and given PBS (WD group); fed with standard laboratory food and given RM-493 (RM-493 group); and fed with western-type diet and RM-493(WD+RM-493 group). After injection with PBS and RM-493 injections for 5 days, they were followed by elevated plus maze test and a novel object recognition test. Nutrition with western-type diet resulted in an increase in serum cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels, respectively, and RM-493 treatment decreased these values. Proopiomelanocortin (POMC), MC4R and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expressions increased in groups fed with western-type diet and RM-493. Treatment with RM-493 in ND group increased the residence time in the open arm. In WD group, CA3 region of the hippocampus revealed edema in stratum lucidum layer and degeneration in the pyramidal neurons unlike the WD+RM-493 group. POMC-mediated pathway was activated as a result of an increase in body fat caused by a western-type diet. RM-493 had alleviating effects on brain damages caused by a western-type diet and could improve cognitive functions.

Cognitive dysfunction is common in individuals with depression and these cognitive deficits may be associated with a risk of suicide. Therefore, the identification of the cognitive functions of depressed patients and the introduction of effective interventions on these factors are highly important. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) and Theta Burst Stimulation (TBS) to improve selective attention, working memory, and response time of depressed individuals with and without a history of suicide.

This applied quasi-experimental study was conducted based on a pretest-posttest design. The population included 40 depressed patients referring to the clinics of Mashhad, Iran, in 2020. The samples were divided into four groups, namely individuals with a history of suicide subjected to treatment with rTMS, without a history of suicide receiving treatment with rTMS, with a history of suicide undergoing treatment with TBS, and without a history of suicide administered with TBS (n = 10 each). The data were collected using the Stroop Color and Word Test, Corsi block test, and reaction time tests and statistically analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance.

The results confirmed the effectiveness of the intervention on the congruent reaction time, incongruent reaction time, working memory, simple reaction time, and selective reaction time in all four study groups (P < 0.05). The results of multivariate analysis of covariance showed that the group had a significant effect on the variables of congruent reaction time, simple reaction time, and selective reaction time (P < 0.05); however, it had no significant effect on the variables of incongruent reaction time and working memory (P > 0.05).

Compared to the rTMS method, the TBS had a greater effect on the variables of congruent reaction time, simple reaction time, and selective reaction time.

This study aimed to determine the effect of synchronization of brain waves in alpha, beta, and theta bands by the Binaural beats on visuospatial working memory.

The present quasi-experimental study was conducted based on a pretest-posttest control group design. In this regard, 60 students were selected by the available sampling method and randomly divided into three experimental groups and one control group (n=15 each). All subjects were assessed in the pre-test and post-test stages by the Corsi blocks tapping test. Participants in the experimental groups received 15, 9, 5, and 6 Hz binaural beats for 12 min. The collected data were analyzed using a one-way analysis of covariance.

The findings showed that 15 Hz binaural beats (beta bands) significantly improved the subjectchr('39')s visuospatial working memory (P<0.05).

Given that working memory is the basis of numerous cognitive functions, using 15 Hz binaural beats could improve the visuospatial working memory in these people