Comparing Neuropsychological Functions (Selective Attention, Working Memory, and Cognitive Flexibility) of Normal Female Students With Those With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and Learning Disabilities

Executive functioning behaviors are the cognitive processes necessary for goal-directed behaviors. They include working memory, selective attention, and cognitive flexibility. They have long been a focus within developmental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Cognitive flexibility has emerged as an essential correlate of healthy development both concurrently and longitudinally, making it a critical ability to study early childhood. Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that is responsible for temporarily holding information available for processing. Female students with Attention–Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), students with Learning Disorders (LDs), and normal students have major differences in neuropsychological functions. However, in previous research, it is unclear which group of children has more problems in working memory, selective attention, and cognitive flexibility than the other group. Understanding these problems provides the basis for designing special education for their dominant problems. This study aimed to compare the neuropsychological functions (selective attention, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) of typical female students with those students with ADHD and LDs.

The research method was causal–comparative. The statistical research population comprised all the female students referred to the counseling center and psychological services of education and learning disorders center in Marand City, Iran. Among this population, 90 female students were recruited and assigned to the LDs group (n=30), the ADHD group (n=30), and the normal group (n=30). They were matched in terms of age, gender, and education level. The subjects were selected by the available sampling method and participated in the research. The inclusion criteria were diagnosis of ADHD and LDs based on the opinion of a clinical psychology expert, not suffering from other psychiatric disorders, not suffering from physical diseases, having consent to participate in the research, and being a girl. The exclusion criterion was the failure to complete the questionnaires. The study data were gathered via Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (Grant & Berg, 1948), Stroop Color–Word Computerized Test, and Wechsler Working Memory Test (Wechsler, 1930). Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (one–way analysis of variance [ANOVA] and Tukey's post hoc test) in SPSS version 20 software. The significance level of the tests was considered 0.05.

The results showed a significant difference in the variable of selective attention between the normal students with the ADHD group (p<0.001) and the LDs group (p<0.05). Also, the normal group was significantly different from the ADHD and LDs groups in the variable of cognitive flexibility in the components of the number of completed classes (p<0.001) and residual errors (p<0.001) and the working memory variable in the components of the memory of forwarding numbers (p<0.001) and memory of inverse numbers (p<0.001). So that the normal group performed better. Also, there was a significant difference between the LDs group and the ADHD group in the cognitive flexibility variable in the number of completed classes (p<0.05) and working memory in the component of memory of inverse numbers (p<0.05). Nevertheless, the difference between the two groups in the variable of selective attention was not significant (p>0.05).

Based on the findings, students with ADHD have more problems with cognitive flexibility and working memory. Therefore, it is suggested to provide special educational interventions to improve their cognitive flexibility and working memory.