Denominational Discourse in the Poetry of Prominent Persian Poets (Kasāʾī to Jāmī)

Following the demise of Prophet Muhammad (s), disagreements arose among Muslim scholars regarding crucial matters such as the caliphate, and fundamental beliefs including divine attributes, fate (qaḍāʾ) and predestination (qadar), the nature of good and evil, predetermination (jabr), and free will. These disputes gave rise to various sects and denominations within Islam. Consequently, the field of kalām or theology emerged, encompassing diverse theological sects such as the Muʿtazilites, Ashʿarites, Shias, and Ismāʿilis, as well as different jurisprudential schools such as the Shāfiʿiyya, Mālikiyya, Ḥanbaliyya, Ḥanafiyya, and Shiism. These theological disagreements constitute a significant portion of Islamic history over the course of centuries. Prominent Persian poets often aligned themselves with specific theological and jurisprudential schools of thought, which influenced their poetic expressions. They openly expressed their affirmations or rejections of various theological beliefs within their poems, giving rise to what could be called the "denominational discourse" within Persian poetry. To fully grasp the meaning and significance of these poems, it is essential to possess a comprehensive understanding of the beliefs and ideologies they embraced. This article focuses on examining three prominent theological schools present in Islamic civilization: Shiism, Muʿtazilism, and Ashʿarism. Furthermore, we provide a brief overview of the jurisprudential beliefs held by various poets. Subsequently, we present selected samples of poetry composed by renowned poets that reflect their theological perspectives.