Absent Leaders in the Territory of Wandering Ghosts: Meta synthesis of studies on women's challenges in the path of leadership in higher education across the world

By the beginning of the 1980s, the increasing number of women in higher education in the world intensified the notion of feminization of higher education. However, the passage of five decades and a review of women's achievements in higher education revealed the persistence of several inequalities, including the unequal share of women in leadership and management positions. Women comprise only 17% of the leaders in higher education across the world. This study aims to investigate and compare the obstacles and challenges that women experience on the path to leadership by reviewing research findings using the Meta-Synthesis method in 37 highly cited articles; in the global experience which includes more than 30 countries around the world. The findings revealed that the absence of female leaders in higher education has a variety of reasons that can be classified in the seven main components of “patriarchy and prevalent gender norms along with prejudice”, “division of gender work and conflict between multiple identities”, “acceptance of women in leadership positions, women as immature men”, “success in leadership positions”, “skills, interest and the role of mentoring”, “organizational factors and double standards” and “political interventions and super-structural relations”.Present findings revealed that women perceived several invisible and invisible barriers including laws, norms, and procedures, which constantly make various demands on them, and women have to afford different costs to reach and stay in a leadership position. Visible barriers such as wage inequality, inflexible working hours, low share of women in high academic rankings and discrimination in employment are easier to be identified and confronted, however invisible barriers are more effective and efficient. The pressure of hidden barriers such as the male network of distribution of academic opportunities, normative pressure of organizational culture, gender stereotypes and bias, non-acceptance of women as a leader, toxic relationships, and family demands, form an atmosphere around women that has commanding control over women and are invisible and acting like ghosts. However, this situation can be called as entering into the "territory of the wandering ghosts".These wandering ghosts include procedures, behaviors, stereotypes, expectations, and biased and invisible evaluations that the women leaders might obtain their satisfaction and obey to their commands in order to remain and hold the leadership position. Morley (2014) called women as "absent leaders" in higher education, and this study shows that these absent leaders must live in a "wandering ghost territory" and in order to develop competence and achieve higher positions should pay multiple personal, psychological, and family costs. This conclusion does not neglect the unique and precious role of higher education in the development of empowerment and agency for women but emphasizes that women pass in to the realm of wandering ghosts to be in a leadership position in this so called productive, powerful, and prestigious structure. Key Words: Women, Leadership, Higher education, Absent Leaders, Women in Management