نشریه بوم شناسی کشاورزی
سال چهاردهم شماره 1 (بهار 1401)

 Characteristics such as the high levels of agrobiodiversity, the efficiency of the nutrition, and also variety in ecological and socio-economic functions have altered home gardens into the appropriate model for achieving a sustainable agricultural system. So far, fewer studies in relation to these features have been done in home gardens of dry and semi-arid regions. Protection of diversity with a particular emphasis on agricultural biodiversity is fundamental to sustainable development in food production and hence food security. Expansion of industrial agriculture in the form of monoculture for the purpose of maximizing the yield with the aid of high-yielding varieties and intensive use of inputs has hampered the ecological functions of food production systems worldwide. This problem can be overcome by the application of a wide array of ecological agriculture practices, of which food production in home gardens is only one of them. This environmentally sound practice is an old system of land use almost in all parts of the world with a wide range of dimensions. A combination of different plants, from herbs to trees and in cases with poultry and other low-weight animals, provides a complex sustainable system of food production. This type of subsistence food production is based on local knowledge and normally is part of the residential area or, to the, low input. Food produced in this system is consumed locally, and women are the main element in both production and marketing. Exchanges of experience and knowledge, seed, and also tools, and labors are very common in neighboring communities. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the agrobiodiversity of home gardens in an arid environment of Khorasan Razavi Province.Materials and

Data collection for this study was based on the fieldwork with the distribution of questioners. For this purpose, 17 villages from 3 highly populated counties of Mashhad/ Quchan and Nyshabour were selected, and 164 questioners were distributed with a face-to-face procedure. After the collection and validation of data, only 136 questionnaires were selected, data were extracted, and finally, an analysis was carried out. Afterward, the Shannon biodiversity index, Simpson index, and species richness were calculated. The amount of carbon sequestered was also calculated by an equation referred to in the literature. For the calculation of biodiversity indices, the area under cultivation of each species was used. Based on the available previous studies, seven basic functions for home gardens were assigned.

Results showed the highest Shannon index of species diversity equal to 1.88 for the county of Neishabour; however, the highest functional diversity was found in Quchan. More the 79 percent of changes in the Shannon index are caused by changes in species richness. Stepwise regression analysis revealed that changes in species richness, home area, and household population were the factors that caused 84 percent of changes in functional diversity. Home gardens in these three counties sequester 8.1 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare, and this amount showed a decreasing trend where the distance from the vehicle roads was increased.

It was revealed that with taking distance from the main roads, the amount of carbon dioxide (kg per m2) decreased by tree species.AcknowledgmentsThe authors acknowledge the financial support of this project (grant number 2/19719) by the Vice President for Research and Technology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.

Current estimates indicate that 25% of the world's agricultural lands are affected by water stress. Iran, with an annual 240 mm of rainfall, is classified as a dry region of the world. Wheat is one of the main cereal crops, cultivated to the demands of the population for human feeding. Winter wheat, the most important food grain produced in Iran, is grown on some 6 million ha. Production of wheat typically requires intensive use of chemical fertilizers. In addition to nitrogen (N) and potassium (K), phosphorous (P) is also one of the essential macronutrients required for the growth and development of wheat. P is usually applied to the soil in the form of phosphate fertilizers. However, a large portion of soluble inorganic phosphate applied to the soil as chemical fertilizer is immobilized rapidly and becomes unavailable to plants. Soil microorganisms can contribute to the enhanced availability of soil P through mineralization of organic P or solubilization of inorganic P resulting in the reduction of P fertilization. Beneficial free-living rhizobacteria, which have been shown to improve plant health or increase yield, are usually referred to as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). Mycorrhiza, which is a symbiotic fungus, has been under research for more than a century. Inoculation of plant roots with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi may be effective in improving crop production under drought conditions. Improved productivity of AM plants was attributed to enhanced uptake of immobile nutrients such as phosphorus, zinc, and copper. In addition, other factors associated with AM fungal colonization may influence plant resistance to drought. These include changes in leaf elasticity, improved leaf water, and turgor potentials, maintenance of stomatal opening and transpiration, increased root length and depth, and development of external hyphae. Therefore the main goal of this study was to find the effect of phosphate solubilizing bacteria and Mycorrhizal fungi on yield, yield components, and its association in two dryland wheat cultivars. 

In order to find the effects of the phosphorous deficiency and phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and Mycorrhiza fungi on grain yield and associated traits, an experiment was carried out in factorial arrangement using a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station of Ilam University (46*28' N, 33* 37 E; elevation 1174 m) during 2013-2014 cropping season. Experiment factors consisted of two dryland wheat cultivars (bread (Keras Sabalan) and durum wheat (Saji)) and phosphorous deficiency, phosphate solubilizing bacteria, and Mycorrhiza fungi treatment including (without application of phosphorous, 100% consumption of phosphorous fertilizer, phosphate solubilizing bacteria, Mycorrhiza fungi, phosphate solubilizing bacteria + Mycorrhiza fungi, 50% of phosphorous fertilizer + phosphate solubilizing bacteria + Mycorrhiza fungi, 50% of phosphorous fertilizer + phosphate solubilizing bacteria, 50% of phosphorious fertilizer + Mycorrhiza fungi). At full maturity, agronomic traits such as spik.m-2, spikelet.spike-1, grain.spike-1, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, biological yield, harvest index, spike length, spike weight, and plant height were recorded using a sample of ten random guarded plants from the middle ridges of each plot. The data were analyzed statistically by the SAS program, and the data means were compared by Duncan's multiple range test (DMRT). 

Results indicated that the interaction effect between cultivar×bio-fertilizer had a significant effect on the spike.m-2, spikelet.spike-1, grains.spike-1, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, biological yield, harvest index, spike length, spike weight, and plant height. The use of bio-fertilizer had a positive and significant effect on total studied traits in two dryland wheat under dryland conditions so that Saji cultivar and Using of bio-fertilizer had the highest grain yield with 62% to check treatment (without using of phosphorous chemical fertilizer and f bio-fertilizer) and also Increasing of 36% observed to 100% of using of phosphorous chemical fertilizer. There was a significant difference between cultivars to the response of Using phosphate solubilizing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi so Sji cultivars had the best response to mycorrhizal fungi. Therefore with, regard to the cultivation of wheat is facing terminal stresses (drought and heat), indicating that the Saji cultivar and Using of mycorrhizal fungi can be the best result under dryland conditions. 

This study indicated that phosphate solubilizing bacteria (HSB) and Mycorrhizal fungi had a positive effect on grain yield and associated traits and grain yield was higher in the presence of inoculation with Mycorrhizal fungi and HSB. In general, using bio-fertilizers and managing integrated nourishment quantitatively and qualitatively is one the efficient ways to improve plant production, and the environment would have a better condition if chemical fertilizers consumption reduce. Recent studies indicated that using bio-fertilizers also improves soil physiological structure and also increases organic matter content and P available to the coexistent plant. Of course, before it is recommended for massive production and wide application, it is necessary to implement and replicate this experiment in different regions.

Water shortage in spring for the cultivation of summer crops is a challenge for farmers in most parts of the country due to the fact that cultivation of these crops coincides with the one or two last irrigations needed for cereals during the critical stage of grain filling. Corn, sugar beet, and other summer crops are cultivated during such periods, and hence water allocation is normally problematic during this period. Relay cropping has been considered as a method to overcome such problems. Furthermore, overseeding of one crop to the stand of another crop in the last stage of development of the second crop (relay intercropping) has been considered as energy-saving and efficient resource use method. The aim of the present work was to investigate the possibility of relay intercropping of corn and canola in order to save water and hence overcome water shortage effects in early spring for summer crops.

In order to evaluate the possibility of relay intercropping of corn and canola, an experiment was conducted 10 kilometers west of Shirvan in two growing seasons of 2012-13 and 2013-14. The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design with six treatments and three replications. Treatments included four relay sowing rates of canola and corn (3 rows of canola: 1-row corn, three rows canola: 2-row corn, four rows canola: 2-row corn, six rows canola: 2-row corn), pure stands of canola and corn. Corn seeds were planted between canola rows at the end of the canola growth period to use the latest irrigation of canola for corn germination and emergence. A drip irrigation system was installed, and the amount of water used was measured. All field management operations, including irrigation, fertilizer application, and others, were practiced as the conventional farmers normally conduct. After crop ripening, necessary samples were taken, and finally, LER was calculated for comparison of the treatments.

Analysis Variance of the data showed that the highest 1000-seed weight of canola (3.63 gr) and corn (221.69 gr) were obtained in 4:2 and 3:1 treatments, respectively. This was 3.35 gr for the pure stand of canola and 218.5 gr for the pure stand of corn. Economic and biological yields for both crops of canola and corn were highest in pure stands (2502.5, 9763.5 kg/ha for canola and 6207.6, 15769.2 kg/ha for corn, respectively). The highest seed yield of corn was obtained in 2-row corn and 3-row wheat, but in research, by Adeniyan et al. (2007), the highest seed yield was obtained in pure stand. Harvest index of canola was 26.03 in 3:2 ratio indicating no significant difference with other treatments. The maximum harvest index of corn (40.53%) was observed in the 3:1 ratio. In an experiment by Nassiri Mahallati et al. (2011), the harvest index of corn and wheat was highest in pure stands, but the highest harvest index of canola was found in 4-row canola with wheat cultivation. The highest total LER (1.11) was obtained in 3:1, followed by the 6:2 ratio (1.016). The total water used for the pure stand of canola was 3750 m3/ha, whereas it was 9081 m3/ha for corn. If corn was planted after canola, total water use had been 12831 m3/ha, whereas when they were relay intercropped, water consumption was 10915 m3/ha, saving 1916 m3/ha of water. Zarehaghi et al. (2016) also reported that water consumption in intercropped treatments of corn and bean was less than in pure cultures of these crops.

The highest seed yield of both plants was obtained in pure stand. Between different intercropping ratios of canola and maize, the maximum land equivalent ratio that was more than one (1.11 and 1.016) was observed in 3:1 and 6:2 treatments, respectively. The amount of water saved by relay intercropping of these crops was 1916 m3/ha, which is a considerable amount of water.

Organic fertilizers such as compost and vermicompost improve soil's physical and chemical properties that enhance beneficial microbe's activity in soil and nutrient availability by plants. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Azotobacter and Azospirillum as biofertilizers also have the ability of nitrogen-fixing and release phytohormones which could stimulate plant growth, absorption of nutrients, and the photosynthesis process. Production of medicinal plants with using from biofertilizers leads to an increase of the quantity and quality of active substances such as essential oil. Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.) is a perennial herb that grows wild and is cultivated in temperate regions of Asia, Europe, and America. The essential oil of hyssop is widely used as a traditional drug in some the parts of Asia and Europe to treat respiratory diseases. Hyssop is also used in food, pharmaceutical, flavor, and cosmetic industries throughout the world. The main constituents of hyssop essential oil have been reported as pinocamphone, pinocarvone, and phellandrene. 

In order to study the effects of compost, vermicompost, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria as sustainable nutrient management on the essential oil composition of Hyssopus officinalis, an experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with eight treatments and three replications at the research field of Agriculture Company of Ran in Firouzkooh of Iran during 2012. The treatments were 20 t.ha-1 compost, 12 t.ha-1 vermicompost, biofertilizer (inoculated seeds with Azotobacter chroococcum and Azospirillum lipoferum), 10 t.ha-1 compost  + 6 t.ha-1 vermicompost,  20 t.ha-1 compost + biofertilizer, 12 t.ha-1 vermicompost  + biofertilizer, 10 t.ha-1 compost + 6 t.ha-1 vermicompost + biofertilizer and control (without fertilizer). Studied traits were contained herb yield and percent, yield, and composition of essential oil. The essential oil extraction was done by the hydro-distillation method in Clevenger’s apparatus, and essential oil composition was determined by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Analysis of variance was conducted by SAS software, and the means were compared by the least significant difference test (LSD) at the 5% probability level.

Results showed that the highest herb yield (2601.6 kg.ha-1), essential oil percent (0.20%), and essential oil yield (5.21 kg.ha-1) were obtained in integrated application of 12 t.ha-1 vermicomposts and biofertilizer (nitrogen-fixing bacteria)(2 lit/ha). The maximum cis Pinocamphone percent (63.56%) and beta Phellandrene percentage (9.71%) and the minimum trans Pinocamphone percent (2.50%) in an essential oil by integrated using of 10 t.ha-1 compost, six t.ha-1 vermicomposts, and biofertilizer and the highest Valerianol percentage (5.36%) and Phytol percentage (2.19%) in essential oil with the application of  20 t.ha-1 compost were obtained.   Integrated application of vermicompost and biofertilizer through the high ability for absorption of mineral nutrients like N, P, and K by plants and then increase of biomass amount has a positive effect on essential oil content. Increased essential oil yield in treatment of the integrated application of vermicompost (12 t.ha-1) and biofertilizer can be owing to the improvement of yield attributes such as; essential oil percentage and herb yield. Some studies have reported that the application of bio and organic fertilizers can increase the content and yield of essential oil in a few medicinal plants such as basil, chamomile, and coriander. Integrated application of bio and organic fertilizers through the improvement of biological activities of soil and nutrient elements absorption such as nitrogen and phosphorus, caused more growth and biomass production, which leads to improvement of the essential oil quality. Several studies have shown a beneficial effect on the essential oil composition of medicinal plants by the integrated application of bio and organic fertilizers.  

Generally, the highest essential oil quantity with the integrated application of 12 t.ha-1 vermicomposts and biofertilizer and the highest essential oil quality with the integrated application of 10 t.ha-1 compost, six t.ha-1 vermicomposts and biofertilizer were obtained.

Water scarcity is the main challenging issue in supplying sufficient food in arid and semiarid regions. Agricultural production in Razavi Khorasan, like other arid and semiarid provinces, depends on underground water. Groundwater exploitation alongside climate change has dramatic effects on the availability of surface water for agricultural production in semiarid areas. Crop water use estimation is the first step to increasing Water Use Efficiency (WUE). From the water resource point of view, assessing the gap between actual and attainable crops, WUE is so important, especially for future mitigation strategies. The term water use efficiency refers to production per unit of water used by evapotranspiration, with units such as kg grain/ha per mm water or kg/m3 water, so it does not scale in the 0-1 range. This paper aims to evaluate WUE for main crops (wheat, barley, sugar beet, onion, potato, tomato, cucumber, and watermelon) in the different areas of Razavi Khorasan province (Torbat-e Heydarieh, Torbat-e Jam, Chenaran, Mashhad, Sabzevar, Quchan, Kashmar, Gonabad, and Neyshabour) for 26 years (1985-2010). 

WUE shows crop production per unit of water use. It was calculated as production per unit of crop water used (CWU) by evapotranspiration. CWU was acquired by estimating two components: reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and crop coefficient. ETo was calculated via the Blaney-Criddle equation. Although this method has a coarse accuracy in comparison to other methods, this is ideal when only air-temperature datasets are available. We examined the relationship between yield and CWU, as well as WUE and CWU for wheat, tomato, alfalfa, and sugar beet. A polynomial line was fitted to describe the best relation between two variables. The maximum yield at each point of CWU was determined as the highest attainable yield. Mann-Kendall test was applied to detect the trend of data over time.

The long-term average of WUE showed a similar trend for wheat and barley. The highest wheat WUE was about 0.59 and 0.53 yield per m3 in Torbat-e Jam and Chenaran. Chenaran and Torbat-e Heydarieh had the highest WUE of sugar beet (3.12 and 3.08 kg fresh root per m3). The highest amount of potato WUE (4.05), tomato WUE (4.7), and onion WUE (4.9) were found in Torbat-e Jam, Chenaran, and Chenaran, respectively. Kashmar, Gonabad, and Sabzevar had the lowest WUE for most of the crops. It seems that high temperature during crop growth caused a decrease in WUE in the mentioned locations. WUE of all crops had an intense fluctuation between 1986 and 1996, while it modified in the later years to the extent that a mild increasing slope was found in WUE.A polynomial line was fitted to show yield and WUE changes, then the upper boundary line and the lower boundary line were fitted to represent attainable yield and WUE and minimum yield and WUE. The highest yields were obtained around 540, 880, 940, and 850 mm water use for wheat, alfalfa, sugar beet, and tomato, respectively and the law of diminishing returns was observed between yield and CWU. An increase in temperature caused yield and WUE to decrease. The upper boundary line was more resistant to environmental changes, whereas the lower boundary line was sensitive.The effect of 1 and 2  temperature rise on yield and WUE  was negligible, while with a three  increase, yield and WUE of lower boundary line decreased by 20%. Although a three ℃ increase in temperature had a negligible impact on WUE in the higher boundary line, WUE in the lower boundary line decreased dramatically. Alfalfa was known as the most sensitive, and sugar beet was the most tolerant crop to temperature in terms of WUE.

WUE was negatively associated with mean annual temperature rise. The results indicated that global warming damages yield stability. Yield and CWU showed a positive correlation up to the maximum yield; then, excessive CWU increases led to yield decline. When temperature increases and environmental conditions become worse, appropriate agronomic management such as changing sowing date, balancing crop nutrition, and proper irrigation schemes can play an effective role in enhancing yield. We concluded that when temperature increase, the WUEIntroductionWater scarcity is the main challenging issue in supplying sufficient food in arid and semiarid regions. Agricultural production in Razavi Khorasan, like other arid and semiarid provinces, depends on underground water. Groundwater exploitation alongside climate change has dramatic effects on the availability of surface water for agricultural production in semiarid areas. Crop water use estimation is the first step to increasing Water Use Efficiency (WUE). From the water resource point of view, assessing the gap between actual and attainable crops, WUE is so important, especially for future mitigation strategies. The term water use efficiency refers to production per unit of water used by evapotranspiration, with units such as kg grain/ha per mm water or kg/m3 water, so it does not scale in the 0-1 range. This paper aims to evaluate WUE for main crops (wheat, barley, sugar beet, onion, potato, tomato, cucumber, and watermelon) in the different areas of Razavi Khorasan province (Torbat-e Heydarieh, Torbat-e Jam, Chenaran, Mashhad, Sabzevar, Quchan, Kashmar, Gonabad, and Neyshabour) for 26 years (1985-2010).Material and MethodsWUE shows crop production per unit of water use. It was calculated as production per unit of crop water used (CWU) by evapotranspiration. CWU was acquired by estimating two components: reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and crop coefficient. ETo was calculated via the Blaney-Criddle equation. Although this method has a coarse accuracy in comparison to other methods, this is ideal when only air-temperature datasets are available. We examined the relationship between yield and CWU, as well as WUE and CWU for wheat, tomato, alfalfa, and sugar beet. A polynomial line was fitted to describe the best relation between two variables. The maximum yield at each point of CWU was determined as the highest attainable yield. Mann-Kendall test was applied to detect the trend of data over time. Results and DiscussionThe long-term average of WUE showed a similar trend for wheat and barley. The highest wheat WUE was about 0.59 and 0.53 yield per m3 in Torbat-e Jam and Chenaran. Chenaran and Torbat-e Heydarieh had the highest WUE of sugar beet (3.12 and 3.08 kg fresh root per m3). The highest amount of potato WUE (4.05), tomato WUE (4.7), and onion WUE (4.9) were found in Torbat-e Jam, Chenaran, and Chenaran, respectively. Kashmar, Gonabad, and Sabzevar had the lowest WUE for most of the crops. It seems that high temperature during crop growth caused a decrease in WUE in the mentioned locations. WUE of all crops had an intense fluctuation between 1986 and 1996, while it modified in the later years to the extent that a mild increasing slope was found in WUE.A polynomial line was fitted to show yield and WUE changes, then the upper boundary line and the lower boundary line were fitted to represent attainable yield and WUE and minimum yield and WUE. The highest yields were obtained around 540, 880, 940, and 850 mm water use for wheat, alfalfa, sugar beet, and tomato, respectively and the law of diminishing returns was observed between yield and CWU. An increase in temperature caused yield and WUE to decrease. The upper boundary line was more resistant to environmental changes, whereas the lower boundary line was sensitive.The effect of 1 and 2  temperature rise on yield and WUE  was negligible, while with a three  increase, yield and WUE of lower boundary line decreased by 20%. Although a three ℃ increase in temperature had a negligible impact on WUE in the higher boundary line, WUE in the lower boundary line decreased dramatically. Alfalfa was known as the most sensitive, and sugar beet was the most tolerant crop to temperature in terms of WUE. ConclusionWUE was negatively associated with mean annual temperature rise. The results indicated that global warming damages yield stability. Yield and CWU showed a positive correlation up to the maximum yield; then, excessive CWU increases led to yield decline. When temperature increases and environmental conditions become worse, appropriate agronomic management such as changing sowing date, balancing crop nutrition, and proper irrigation schemes can play an effective role in enhancing yield. We concluded that when temperature increase, the WUE gap will widen, and agronomic management will play a more important role in this condition. gap will widen, and agronomic management will play a more important role in this condition.

Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) is a ,warm-season grass with a growing season of 60–100 days. It is a highly nutritious cereal grain used for human consumption, birdseed, and/or ethanol production. Millet ranks sixth among the world’s most important cereal grains, sustaining more than one-third of the world’s population. Millets are generally among the most suitable crops for sustainable agriculture and food security on marginal lands with low fertility. Millet crops are grown on marginal lands and under low-input agricultural conditions, situations in which major cereal crops often produce low yields. Foliar application of Zn brings the greatest benefit in comparison with addition to soil where they become less available. Generally, Micronutrients are essential for plant growth and play an important role in balanced crop nutrition. Micronutrients are as important to plant nutrition as primary and secondary nutrients, though plants do not require as much of them. 

To study the effect of cow manure (CM: 0, 10, 20, and 30 ton ha-1) and zinc sulfate (ZS: 0, 60, and 90 kg ha-1) application on common millet (Panicum miliaceaum L.) growth and yield, a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications was conducted in the research field of University of Birjand, Iran, in 2018 growing season. In addition, a chemical fertilizer (NPK) treatment was considered in each block, and its effect was compared with 12 other combination treatments based on a randomized complete block design.  The studied traits were plant height, number of tillers per plant, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, biological yield, harvest index, and seed zinc content. The software SAS (V9.1) and Excel were used to analyze the data and draw the figures. Means were compared using the FLSD test at a 5% probability level. 

Analysis of variance results showed that the simple effects of both experimental factors were significant on all studied traits, but none of the interaction effects were significant. Application of 60 kg ha-1 of ZS improved all growth and yield parameters of millet, while the highest zinc content in the seed was obtained by applying 90 kg ha-1. The highest seed and biological yields (2227 and 7940 kg ha-1, respectively) were obtained by 60 kg ha-1 of ZS application, which was 36 and 6.6% higher than the control treatment (no-fertilization), respectively. All studied traits showed an increasing trend with increasing the amount of CM consumption, so that their highest values ​​were obtained when 30 tons ha-1 of CM was applied. Seed yield (2564 kg ha-1) at the highest CM level was 138% more than the control treatment and ultimately led to a 14.4% increase in the harvest index. 

Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) is a cereal plant cultivated for its grain, mostly in Asia and North America. It is a warm-season grass with a short growing season and low moisture requirement that is capable of producing food or feed where other grain crops would fail. Chemical fertilizer treatment (NPK) also improved all traits related to plant growth and yield compared to control as well as some other fertilization treatments. Modifying the physical properties of the soil and the availability of nutrients for millet plants can be a major reason for the increased yield and growth of the plant. Also, the results showed that consumption of zinc sulfate at 60 kg.ha-1 increased yield and yield components of common millet, but consumption of 90 kg.ha-1 of this fertilizer reduced the studied traits. In addition, the results of this experiment showed a significant difference between four levels of manure so that the highest grain yield of studied millet was obtained from 30 tons per hectare of manure. According to the test results, it can be stated that the application of zinc sulfate at a rate of 60 kg per hectare increased the yield and yield components of millet and therefore is introduced as the desired amount of fertilizer to achieve ideal yield.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is an herbaceous medicinal plant from the Lamiaceae family with a wide range of applications in the culinary, cosmetic, food, perfumery, and medical industries. The presence of more than 200 chemicals, including flavonoids, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, triterpenes, and aromatic compounds in basil oil, have been identified. The main components of its oil are eugenol, methyl eugenol, linalool, estragole, and anethole, varying by chemotype. Basil is one of the most important medicinal plants in Iran, which is widely used in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, sanitary, and food industries, and it is considered an anti-fluff and appetizer in traditional medicine. Therefore, to maximize yield and increase the length of the basil production period, the appropriate management of this product is necessary. Among these, the use of suitable nutritional elements is one of the useful ways to improve the performance of this plant. The centers of origin of basil are the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, and South America. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of different levels of vermicompost and copper sulfate and their interaction on vegetative, reproductive growth, and yield of basil's medicinal plant.

To investigate the effect of vermicompost and copper sulfate on some vegetative and reproductive characteristics of the basil plant, an experiment was carried out as factorial based on a randomized completely block design with three replications in the research farm of Birjand University, Iran, during the growing season 2017-2018. Treatments were three levels of vermicompost (0, 5, and 10 t.ha-1) and three levels of copper sulfate (0, 3, and 6 per thousand) with three replications. The measured indices include vegetative characteristics (plant height, lateral number, plant fresh and dry weight, leaf fresh and dry weight, number of leaves and node per plant, lateral branch length internally spaced, and diameter stem) and reproductive characteristics (inflorescence number and length, number of plant seeds, the weight of one thousand seeds, harvest index, grain performance, and biological function).

The results showed that the studied treatments had a significant effect on the number of lateral branches, plant dry weight, number of leaves per plant, lateral branch length, number of seeds, 1000-seed weight, harvest index, grain yield, and biological yield so that the highest number of lateral branches (17.33), Plant dry weight (14.83 g.m-2), Number of leaves per plant (167), Lateral branch length (26.83 cm), Number of seeds (3854.3), 1000-seed weight (1.80 g), Seed yield (3350 kg.m-2) and biological yield (20968.3 kg.m-2) basil was obtained in the treatment of 5 t.h-1 of vermicompost and 6 per thousand of copper sulfate and its advantage over the control was 67, 51, 16, 43, 79, 26, 87 and 26%, respectively. Harvest index in the treatment of 5 t.h-1 of vermicompost and 3 per thousand of copper sulfate with 13.01 in its maximum amount.

In general, the results indicated a positive and incremental effect of the combined application of the chemical and organic fertilizers on the yield of the basil plant, and according to the results, treatment with 6 per thousand copper sulfate and five t.ha-1 vermicompost was recommended as the best treatment for increasing yield. But always in agricultural products, especially in the production of basil as a medicinal and vegetable plant, the best results in terms of crop production and health, as well as essential oils and medicinal compounds, were related to the combined treatments of organic and chemical fertilizers, because these treatments are relative compared to organic treatments alone, they increased the yield and on the other hand, compared to chemical fertilizers, they had a healthier product and more medicinal compounds.Acknowledgments: Authors are grateful to Ebrahim Ebrahimabadi for their help with the field experiments.

Wheat and barley are important strategic crops that constitute the staple food of the world population including Iranian people. Given the role of these crops in the household food basket, food safety and self-sufficiency in the production of these crops can be an important and valuable step towards economic independence. Increasing agricultural production due to the use of chemical inputs causes serious damage to the environment. Therefore, any plan and policy to increase production, in addition to technical and economic aspects, must also be analyzed from an environmental perspective. Considering the importance of this issue, the present study aims to investigate the sustainability of rainfed wheat and barley production using the multifunctional ecological footprint (EF). The results can provide useful information to agricultural planners and policymakers.

To analyze sustainability, data from Agricultural Statistics of 2017 and the statistics published in domestic databases were used. In the agricultural sector, the footprint indicator should reflect the type of agricultural operations and land use. Accordingly, the EF is divided into two parts: direct and indirect parts of the footprint. The direct footprint indicates the amount of land, buildings, forests, and rangelands for crop production that is defined as the amount of bio-productive area. The indirect footprint represents the amount of bio-productive land used to absorb the amount of CO2 emitted during crop production and agricultural operations.Other aspects and benefits of EF are the use of different functional units that can provide researchers with broader analytical backgrounds. For this purpose, evaluating EF based on a ton of crops, 10,000 Rials income and benefits in the field were also calculated using divided EF by each of the different functional units.

Concerning rainfed wheat production, Alborz, Mazandaran, and Golestan provinces had the highest emissions by 1632, 1140 and 860 kgCO2eq, respectively and Sistan and Baluchestan, South Khorasan and Qom provinces had the lowest emissions. Concerning rainfed barley production, Markazi, Hamedan, and Mazandaran provinces emitted 989, 869, and 775 kg CO2eq, respectively, so that they were ranked first whereas Sistan and Baluchestan, South Khorasan and Isfahan provinces with 236, 263 and 298 kg CO2eq had the lowest emissions. EF for rainfed wheat production ranges from 2.57 in South Khorasan to 2.87 in Alborz. EF for rainfed barley ranges from 2.57 in South Khorasan to 2.73 in Markazi. With respect to rainfed wheat and barley production, on-farm emissions had a higher share in indirect EF than off-farm emissions. EF for one ton of rainfed wheat varied from 0.75 Gha in Mazandaran province to 10.85 Gha in South Khorasan province. EF yield of rainfed barley production indicates that Fars, Isfahan, and South Khorasan provinces are in the most unsustainable conditions for producing one ton of rainfed barley.The results of correlation between EF and yield EF and benefit revealed a significant relationship between EF of rainfed wheat and barley in provinces at the 1% probability level. Also, there was a significant relationship between EF and yield EF in rainfed wheat at the 5% probability level, but this relation was not significant for rainfed barley. Also, the lack of a significant relationship between EF yield and EF profit shows that an increase in crop yield would not necessarily lead to an increase in the benefit of rainfed wheat and barley.

The comparison of EF indices and correlation between them showed that increasing inputs in rainfed wheat could increase yield, but it had no effect on barley yield enhancement. On the other hand, no statistically significant relationship between EF yield and benefit showed that yield increase does not necessarily lead to higher profitability. Therefore, cost management is one of the key elements in increasing the profitability of rainfed cereal production at the national level. Therefore, to increase the sustainability of rainfed cereal production at the national level, apart from planning to increase yield, policy-making for efficient use of resources and reducing production costs should be considered a key basis in production planning and policy-making.

The main goal of conventional agriculture is to maximize both production and income. Intercropping, the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time, is an old and commonly used cropping practice that aims to match efficiently crop demands to the available growth resources and labor. The most common advantage of intercropping is the production of greater yield on a given piece of land by making more efficient use of the available growth resources using a mixture of crops of different rooting ability, canopy structure, height, and nutrient requirements based on the complementary utilization of growth resources by the component crops. Mixed cropping of cereals with non-cereal plants, in addition to the optimal and fair use of resources such as land and labor, increased productivity per unit area and strengthened total productivity per unit area and time. In mixed cropping of bean and sesame, treatments including 25:75, 50:50 and 75:25 had 1000-seed weight, number of capsules or pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and harvest index were higher than other treatments. 

An experiment was carried out as factorial based on a randomized complete block design with three replications in Gonbad Kavous University farm from 2017-to 2018. The intercropping ratios were in nine levels, including sole crop of chickpea and lettuce, replacement intercropping of 33, 50, and 66% lettuce instead of chickpea, and additive intercropping of 100% cicer + 33, 50, 67, and 100% lettuce and pure nitrogen consumption in three levels of 0, 50 and 100 Kg-ha. Row distance was 30cm, and row lengths were 3m. The distance between plants in rows was 20 cm for lettuce and 10 cm for chickpeas. The number of rows in sole cropping of chickpea and lettuce was four, 50% lettuce + 50% chickpeas 4 (chickpea-lettuce-chickpea-lettuce), 33% lettuce + 67% chickpea 5 (chickpea-lettuce-chickpea-chickpea–lettuce), 33% chickpea + 67% lettuce 5 (lettuce-chickpea-chickpea- lettuce-chickpea) and in additive treatments was 8 (lettuce-lettuce-lettuce-lettuce-lettuce-lettuce-lettuce-lettuce-) with 15 cm from together. In additive treatments distance of plants was 60, 40, 30, and 20 cm for 33, 50, 67, and 100% increase, respectively. SAS Ver. 9.4 was performed for statistical analysis of data, and the least significant difference test (LSD) at the 5% probability level was employed for mean comparisons.   

The results showed that the highest dry weight, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant, 1000-seed weight, seed weight per plant, and chickpea harvest index were obtained from replacement series of 33% chickpea and 67% lettuce. This was due to reduced external competition, which provided more space for the plant and produced more photosynthetic material. Also, the lowest dry weight, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant, seed weight per plant, and 1000-seed weight of chickpea were obtained from an increase of 100% lettuce to chickpea. With increasing nitrogen consumption, plant weight, the number of pods per plant, number of seeds per plant, seed weight per plant, 1000-seed weight and chickpea harvest index, and lettuce plant height and weight were increased. By increasing of nitrogen, plant growth, yield components, and consequently, chickpea seed yield increased. 

Among the two pea and lettuce plants, lettuce plant weight was higher. The higher weight of lettuce can be attributed to the genetic characteristic of the plant (harvest of the whole plant and high level of water content of the plant). The weight of both species increased with increasing nitrogen consumption. The highest harvest index resulted from the treatment of 50 kg nitrogen per hectare, and the lowest harvest index was obtained from the treatment of non-consumption of nitrogen. Chickpea plant dry weight was reduced due to increasing density which in turn resulted in high competition between plants. Seed weight and yield components of chickpea decreased with increasing density.

Management of water consumption in arid and semi-arid regions in recent years has been considered a key issue in the field of water resources management. Zirkoh and Ghaenat counties are the hot spots of water consumption in the region. Water footprint and virtual water are critical indicators for water resources management. Therefore, the development of the cropping pattern with high water requirements has led to a negative water balance in the Ghaenat and Zirkoh counties. To prevent the negative consequences of this crisis, it is necessary to consider the restriction of cropping pattern with high water requirements in the region, as well as the assessment of water footprint and virtual water of agricultural products. Also, one of the strategies for managing and optimizing the consumption of water resources in the region is to determine the appropriate cropping pattern with regard to the local conditions. Therefore, this study has been conducted with the aim of calculating the components of water footprint and virtual water in the cropping patterns of Zirkoh and Ghaenat counties and determining the optimal cropping pattern for planting crops from the perspective of water footprint.

In this study, the amount of virtual water and green, blue, gray, and white water footprint for wheat, barley, potato, sugar beet, cotton, alfalfa, and saffron were calculated in the current cropping pattern and at multi-objective nonlinear programming (MOP) approach with the objectives of maximizing net profit and minimizing virtual water, green, blue, gray and white water footprint as the optimal cropping pattern in Ghaenat and Zirkoh counties. The study area was irrigated areas of Zirkoh and Ghaenat counties during 2017.

The results showed that the indices of virtual water and water footprint components in Zirkoh county were higher than Ghaenat county. Also, in two counties, the blue water footprint was more than the green water footprint and the results showed that a large amount of water resources in this area is spent on the production of cotton. In all studied crops, blue water footprint was more than other components of water footprint, which shows the reliance on surface and sub-surface water resources. The results also showed that the area under cultivation of potatoes, melons, and barley in the multi-objective pattern of Ghaenat and the area under cultivation of melons, sugar beets, potatoes, watermelons, alfalfa, and saffron increased compared to the current cropping pattern. Reduction of area under cultivation of cotton, alfalfa, watermelon in Ghaenat county and cotton, wheat and barley in Zirkoh county by 50% in the multi-objective crop pattern were other important results. By determining the optimal cropping pattern, the environmental effects of the agricultural sector on water resources could be reduced, so that the implementation of this pattern in the region reduced virtual water by 26%, blue water footprint by 4%, gray water footprint by 18% compared to the current cropping pattern.

According to the findings of this study, it is necessary to pay attention to the environmental objectives affecting water resources in optimizing cropping pattern. Using the proposed model, in addition to selecting the appropriate model and optimal use of water and land resources, to increase profits and reduce water and virtual water footprint, about 13 million cubic meters of water could be saved compared to the current cropping pattern in the region. Therefore, by implementing the optimal cropping pattern, in addition to reducing the environmental effects, the net income could be maximized of water consumed per cubic meter in the region, and by reducing water consumption, we can help achieve sustainable consumption of limited water resources in the region.