Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology
Volume:24 Issue: 4, Jul 2022

Empirical studies on the concept of rural entrepreneurship are neglected in the literature. This study aimed to analyze this concept empirically through investigation of the businesses related to rural areas and distinguish them into three groups including “rural entrepreneurship”, “entrepreneurship in rural areas” and “rural business”. Two questionnaires were designed for this survey research: one general, filled by owners of businesses, and the second was specific, filled by the research group. A total of 496 Iranian businesses related to rural areas supported by Omid Entrepreneurship Fund in Fars Province were categorized into three groups of businesses. The results of ANOVA indicated that “rural entrepreneurship” and “entrepreneurship in rural areas” were statistically more entrepreneurial than “rural business”. The values created by different groups of businesses were analyzed and the results showed that “rural entrepreneurship” was the only group whose profitability was dependent on value creation for rural areas.

Agricultural production is very important in terms of both energy production and consumption. The main purpose of this study was to calculate the energy values, productivity, and energy efficiency of inputs used in sunflower production in Konya. The sample volume was calculated as 51 by using the Neyman Method of the Stratified Random Sampling Method. In the energy balance analysis of enterprises, the energy equations of all outputs and inputs used in sunflower production were acquired by multiplying with conversion coefficients. Energy output and input equations were calculated for unit sunflower production (MJ kg-1). In conclusion, it was ascertained that 25.26% of the total energy input per hectare comprised direct energy and 74.74% consisted of indirect energy. Energy use efficiency in the research area was 4.94, while the specific energy value was 5.06 MJ kg-1. In other words, 5.06 MJ kg-1 of energy was consumed for 1 kg of sunflower production. The price of 1 kg of sunflower is USD 0.60. The average Technical Efficiency (TE) of the enterprises in the research area was 0.874, and 29.41% of the enterprises producing sunflowers were efficient in energy use per production, whereas 70.58% were less efficient enterprises. Saving energy in sunflower production will have a positive economic impact on the business.

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technologies are introduced to increase agricultural productivity and improve farmers’ adaptation to climate change. Several factors influence the extent to which farmers in a particular location adopt CSA technologies. Due to the importance of financial issues, this study aimed to analyze farmers’ agreement to apply and pay for these technologies in Iran. Accordingly, the study population was farmers at Aq Qala County in the north of Iran (N= 5,447). The sample size was estimated using the Bartlett Table (n= 119), and participants were selected through a simple random sampling method. The list of appropriate CSA technologies was prepared using a relevant article and adjusted to the local condition by the agricultural experts’ comments in the research area. Results indicated that farmers’ agreement is mainly higher than their willingness to pay for CSA technology. Specifically, they prefer to pay for technologies with low cost and short-term benefits (e.g., minimum tillage, cover crops method, concentrate feeding for livestock, and crop insurance). Results of this study have practical implications for agricultural agencies in climate change adaptation planning at local level in that farmers should be trained to use low cost practices when they apply CSA practices. Moreover, allocating subsidies to some CSA technologies could be another suggestion to improve climate change management in Iran.

Recent droughts have aroused extensive concerns on crop and food production in the world. Since agricultural sector is the leading water consumer in Iran and farmers are most vulnerable to drought, a correct understanding of farmers’ adaptation behavior towards drought can help policymakers develop proper drought-coping policies and strategies. The present study aimed to investigate farmers’ drought adaptation behavior and the effect of cultural biases on it among farmers in the Sistan Plain, Iran. A sample of 361 farmers was taken by the multi-stage randomization technique. The measurement instrument was a questionnaire whose face validity was confirmed by a panel of experts and its reliability was estimated by calculating Cronbach’s Alpha in a pilot study. The results showed that the worldview of the farmers had a significant effect on their attitude, social norms, and perceived behavioral control. Also, behavioral intention and perceived behavioral control had a significant positive effect on the farmers’ drought adaptation behavior. It is concluded that farmers’ worldviews may be involved in the process of drought adaptation behavior and can influence their attitude, social norms, and perceived behavior control directly, and their intention and behavior indirectly.

Farmers’ perceptions of climate change risk is critically important if they plan to implement appropriate adaptation measures in their farming. This research was conducted to evaluate the accuracy of farmers’ perceptions of climate variability and assess the factors influencing it. To evaluate the accuracy of farmers’ perceptions, this study also explored the pattern and trend of climate variability in the study area, using historical meteorological data analysis. Research sample included 217 farmers of Kermanshah Township, who were selected using multistage sampling technique. The accuracy of the farmers’ perceived patterns of local climatic changes was appraised based on graphical analyses of meteorological records during 1970 to 2018. Then, the accuracy of farmers’ perceptions were categorized. Findings showed that the perceptions of 58.06%. of farmers were consistent with the meteorological data, and there was a need to improve the accuracy of farmers’ perceptions of climate variability. Sharing specific local weather information with the community would be one possible way of solving this issue. Also, this study investigated the factors influencing farmers’ perceptions of climate change risk. The results showed that knowledge, personal emotions, social norms, and personal experience collectively accounted for 49.3% of the farmers’ perceptions of climate change risk variance.

Egg parasitoids forage for hosts in a dynamic ecosystem. The short longevity of the adult stage forces them to access a host in a short time. The current study examined optimal reproductive attributes of three egg parasitoids: Trissolcus agriope (Kozlov and Le), Trissolcus delucchii Kozlov and Trissolcus niceppe (Kozlov and Le) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae). The characteristics used were fecundity, immature survival rate, daily reproduction, and sex ratio that emerged from host eggs, Acrosternum arabicum Wagner (Hemipteran: Pentatomidae). Experiments were conducted separately in the first day of emergence, 20, 40, 60 and 80% of the mean longevity of naïve foundresses, influenced by mating status and under host deprivation conditions. The results revealed that the immature survival rate of foundresses of T. agriope on the first day of emergence, and at 20 and 40% of longevity were higher than other progeny produced by the three parasitoids, whether mated or unmated. All foundresses produced maximum progeny in the first oviposition experience, although the oviposition period was continuous. Regardless of mating status, the progeny production of T. agriope and T. niceppe declined in the last two stages (60 and 80% of female longevity). The proportion of male progeny increased with foundress age from 40% of their longevity. The species-specific performance of female parasitoids is discussed with regards to oogenesis, oosorption and survival of male gametes in female spermatheca. The results provided information about suitable female age for mass rearing and mass release programs, whether in inundation method or for determination of inoculation rhythms.

The Tomato Leaf Miner (TLM), Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is a cosmopolitan tomato pest that has driven a renewed reliance on pesticides in tomato production, negatively affecting biological control of other pests and creating environmental and health hazards. We tested five locally important Iranian tomato cultivars (TD, Karon, Petoprid, Matin, and 8320) for constituitive resistance to TLM by comparing its biological performance and life table parameters under standardized laboratory conditions (27.5±1°C, 65±5% RH, 16 L:8 D hours photoperiod). Survival and developmental rates of immature stages varied significantly among cultivars, as did female fecundity and main parameters of the life table. Karon was most suceptible, affording 90% juvenile TLM survival, the fastest development, and the highest female fecundity, with cultivar 8320 not significantly different in these regards. By contrast, Matin ranked most resistant; i.e. only 59% of larvae survived, and female fecundity was almost halved. TD was the next most resistant, being not significantly different from Matin in these metrics. The intrinsic rates of increase (r), in descending order, were Karon (0.178), 8320 (0.169), TD (0.146), Petoprid (0.138), and Matin (0.111). Matin and TD had the highest densities of glandular trichomes on adaxial leaf surfaces. These findings indicate that the Matin, Petoprid and TD are more resistant than the other cultivars and have potential as one component of an IPM strategy to manage T. absoluta.

Ambient temperature directly affects growth and development of rice (Oryza sativa L.), especially at the seedling stage. This study aimed to determine the effects of temperature and potassium Chloride (KCl) on certain physiological and biochemical indicators at the seedling stage of two improved rice cultivars (CR203 and DT10). Under the influence of low temperature (10°C), degradation of carbohydrates in seeds was inhibited and the total organic acid content and α-amylase activity decreased, resulting in higher starch content and lower reducing sugar content in both rice cultivars, compared to treatment at the optimal temperature (28°C). For seeds treated with KCl, the α-amylase activity and total organic acid content of the two rice cultivars increased; therefore, the reducing sugar content increased while the starch content decreased. The peroxidase and catalase activities of CR203 decreased under a low-temperature treatment, while those of DT10 increased under the same conditions. Meanwhile, treating seeds with KCl increased the peroxidase and catalase activities of both rice cultivars; however, the peroxidase activity of DT10 increased slightly. The results also suggest that low temperature inhibits the physiological activities of CR203 and DT10 at the seedling stage, while treatment of seeds with KCl increases the physiological activities of both rice cultivars. These results suggest that treating seeds with KCl contributed to improve the tolerance to low temperature stress of the CR203 and DT10 rice cultivars at the seedling stage. In general, treatment of rice seeds with KCl could be recommended to increase cold tolerance at the seedling stage.

Fruit cracking is a predominant physiological disorder of lemon that limits its productivity. The present study aimed to compare the physiological and biochemical traits of cracked and normal fruits of lemon, to understand the cause of fruit cracking and find a viable solution for this disorder. This study was conducted on five-year-old uniform healthy trees grown at fruit research farm, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, during 2017-2018. Fruits of lemon cracked in different patterns and the cracking peaked due to sudden rainfall and high humidity after a dry spell during the two consecutive years of study. The peel thickness, peel percent and chlorophyll content of the cracked peel was significantly low as compared to the normal ones. Activity of peroxidase and two cell wall degrading enzymes, namely, cellulase and polygalacturonase were higher in cracked peels. Juice content and ascorbic content were low in cracked fruit juice as compared to normal ones. Meanwhile, calcium, potassium and boron content were higher in the normal peel and lower in the cracked peel. A significant positive correlation of fruit cracking incidence with proline, peroxidase, cellulase and polygalacturonase was established, whereas a negative significant correlation was established between fruit cracking percent and peel thickness, calcium, potassium, boron, juice percent and ascorbic acid content. Nutrient deficiency and higher activities of cellulase and polygalacturonase in peel of cracked fruits emerged as the cause of fruit cracking incidence in lemon. Hence, foliar application of calcium, potassium, and boron are recommendable as a remedial measure for prevention of fruit cracking in lemon.

In this study, the effects of flooding stress on grafted cucumber were examined over time. A factorial experiment based on a complete randomized design was conducted with three plots including 9 plants in each plot. Water status treatments included optimum irrigation and flooding stress for 15 days and three cucumber treatments consisted of grafted cucumber (Cucumis sativus var. Isfahan) into Cucurbita maxima×Cucurbita moschata ‘Ferro’= R1 and ‘Cobalt’= R2; and Non-Grafted cucumber= NG was used as the control. Some physiological and growth parameters were measured 3 times in the vegetative stage to follow the effect of flooding stress when used on grafted cucumber. The results showed that K concentration decreased by flooding in the non-grafted, while R1 and R2 could efficiently uptake K in the flooding condition. Both decreasing photosynthesis and water potential of the plant were observed in non-grafted cucumber, reducing the transpiration and stomatal conductance, resulting in more water content in plants and increasing the fresh weight of grafted cucumbers. Grafted cucumber, i.e., R1 and R2 effectively maintained their growth under flooding stress, seemingly by using a different mechanism: R1 by increasing water potential for preserving water and R2 by improving photosynthesis, could successfully keep the growth of grafted-cucumbers under the flooding stress.

Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) are widely used in medical and pharmaceutical applications due to their antimicrobial properties. In this study, Ag-NPs were synthesized using Viola tricolor aqueous extract as a reducing and capping agent. The presence of synthesized Ag-NPs was first confirmed with UV-Visible, SEM, TEM, XRD, and FTIR analyses, and then their antimicrobial characteristics were studied based on the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC). The SEM analysis showed that the synthesized AgNPs were spherical in shape. The particle size histogram revealed that the average particle size of the AgNPs was 49.45 nm. Findings from the FTIR and UV-Vis spectra showed the successful formation of Ag-NPs because the functional groups involved in the synthesis process and adsorption peaks were well developed. Furthermore, the Ag-NPs had a peak absorption at 420 nm in the spectrometry. MIC results showed the strong antimicrobial effects of the synthesized Ag-NPs. Results of the Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) revealed the dose-dependent cytotoxicity of the Ag-NPs. Nanoparticles could exert the inhibitory effect of DDPH free radicals in a dose-dependent manner. Methyl tetrazolium (MTT) results showed that silver nanoparticles had a dose-dependent cytotoxic effect and significantly reduced cell survival. The IC50 values for Ag-NPs and the extract were 11.83 and 204.4 μg mL-1, respectively. This study showed a higher cytotoxic effect of the green synthesized nanoparticles on hepatocellular carcinoma cells than the extract. Consequently, the biosynthesis of Ag-NPs using aqueous extract of V. tricolor is clean, inexpensive, and has antibacterial, anticancer and antioxidant activities. Hence, it can be used as a drug candidate.

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) as an important vegetable has a high postharvest respiration rate, so, it loses its quality rapidly. The use of edible films and coatings as protective layers to create a covering on the surface of fruits and vegetables plays a key role in maintaining the quality of this product. The present research investigated the qualitative and biochemical traits of broccoli coated with tragacanth gum (0, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4%) and cellophane and uncoated ones (as control) weekly during three-weeks cold storage. Based on the results, coating influenced all measured traits (except flavonoid content, vitamin C and antioxidant activity) and storage time influenced all recorded traits significantly (P< 0.01). The results revealed that over the storage period, the physicochemical and biochemical parameters and visual quality of the broccoli decreased. Tragacanth gum 0.2% led to less weight loss, however, appropriate soluble solids content, and higher titratable acidity and organoleptic properties were recorded for 0.4% coated florets. Cellophane was effective in retaining some physicochemical characteristics, weight, and marketability, but it reduced phenolics. Tragacanth gum coating can be used as a biomaterial, as a substitute for synthetic cellophane film to preserve broccoli.

This study reports the arrangement of the flower head and the structure of the floral organs of the artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) cultivar ‘Bayrampaşa’, which is a very popular variety in Turkey. The structure of flower of this cultivar was investigated under a stereomicroscope, light microscope, and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Additionally, the flower development stages were examined. The flower heads contain multiple flowers attached to a single receptacle. The flowers on the flower head are arranged in the form of a disc. The maturation of the flowers starts from the outer part of the head and continues towards the center. The number of flowers per head was determined to be 800-1200. The flowers exhibited hermaphroditism, and one flower was found to have five rudimentary petals, five stamens, and one pistil. The ovary was the inferior type. The style was of the closed type and was very long. The stigma was very long and had two portions, with one portion shorter than the other. The stamen had one theca with two lobes. The pollen was lifted up and distributed at the outer sides of the stigma, which is the secondary pollen presentation system. The pollen grains of this cultivar were circular in shape and trizonocolporate. The pollen surface was echinate with spin projections. The pollen grain length was 54.33 µm and the spin length was 5 µm in the examined cultivar. The different stages of flower development were seen in the flower head. The flowers were divided into four different stages of development and they have Measuremented in  these stage.

Two field experiments were conducted during two successive seasons to evaluate growth and glucotropaeolin content of nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus) under different levels of nitrogen and sulur supply. Three nitrogen rates (0, 60 and 120 kg N ha-1) as ammonium nitrate and three sulfur rates (0, 50 and 100 kg S ha-1) as elemental sulfur were used. Results indicated that nitrogen and sulfur supply increased biomass accumulation of T. majus including plant height, branches number, plant fresh weight, leaf fresh and dry weights, and stem fresh and dry weights. The highest values of growth traits were recorded with the highest nitrogen rate (120 kg ha-1) and the medium or the highest sulfur rate (50 and 100 kg S ha-1) at all growth stages in both seasons. Glucotropaeolin content ranged from 23.45 to 45.26 μmol g-1 DW in leaves and from 117.92 to 156.31 μmol g-1 DW in seeds. The response of glucotropaeolin content to nitrogen supply varied between plant parts and growth stages. Glucotropaeolin content in seeds was unaffected by nitrogen supply. The highest glucotropaeolin content in leaves was found in plants that received 120 kg N ha-1. Glucotropaeolin content in leaves and seeds significantly increased with sulfur supply in both seasons at all growth stages.

Strawberry (Fragaria spp.) is broadly planted for its fruit, fragrance, color, taste, and sweetness. Some people are concerned about transgenic plants and their products. Furthermore, genetic diversity is one of the basics of plant breeding programs. Polyploidy induction is one of the solutions to create genetic diversity and to reduce the concerns about transgenic plants. This experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design to induce polyploidy in strawberry (Fragaria spp. cv. Kurdistan) using different concentrations of colchicine. We aimed to examine the possibility of polyploidy induction, to determine the best concentration, and to evaluate strawberry responses to polyploidy. The tetraploidy percentage in the plants treated by 0.7% colchicine was more ‎than 80%. Tetraploid plants had a greater fruit ‎length and diameter, fresh fruit weight, and larger fruit ‎volume than the controls. Such plants had ‎a lower stomata number with a larger size and a larger chloroplast number ‎ than the diploids. ‎Ultimately, considering the flow cytometry results, and the number of modified plants, the best concentration was 0.7% colchicine treatment, which could be used as a suitable concentration for ploidy induction in strawberries.

Biofilm formation and rhizosphere colonization of the plants are the main infrastructures for the biological control of the plant diseases. Bacteria accumulation in the protective layer, which results from their self-production of Exopolysaccharides (EPS), is called the biofilm. The formation of these complex structures originates from the multicellular behaviors of bacteria. Various elements can play a role in these mechanisms. In this study, we examined biofilm formation, root colonization, and salt tolerance to four concentrations of NaCl in the strains of Bacillus velezensis (Q12, US1, and UR1). The results showed that the biofilm strength plays an important role in the efficiency of tomato root colonization. Furthermore, UR1 that had defects in producing the surfactin, iturin, and fengycin using Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-HRESIMS), was incapable of tolerance to salinity, biofilm formation, competition, and rhizosphere colonization. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) studies showed that strains US1 and Q12 differed in the biofilm strength, the position of the bacteria that are located laterally, polar, or both, and root colonization. Q12 was introduced as the best strain in all these experiments. Also, based on the findings of this and previous studies, the possibility to create the subpopulations influenced by genetic diversity in Bacillus velezensis strains during biofilm formation is suggested.

Some plant extracts contain elicitors for inducing systemic resistances in treated plants like the lavender extract, whose protective effects against pathogen proved to be by activating the SAR systemic defense pathway. In this study, plant crude extracts including Azadirachta indica (neem), Tagetes erecta (marigold), Thymus daenensis (thymus), and Carum carvi (caraway) were used to control Root-Knot Nematode (RNK) Meloidogyne javanica in cucumber. First, the effect of these extracts on egg hatching and juvenile mortality was investigated, then, the effect of plant extracts on characters such as numbers of egg masses, nematode galls, and eggs per plant root was evaluated under greenhouse conditions. In the third part of this study, the effect of plant extracts on Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO), Peroxidase (POX), Catalase (CAT), Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase (PAL) and β(1,3) Glucanase (β-1, 3-Glu) enzyme activities was studied. Finally, the expression level of three stress enzymes genes including CAT, PPO, and β-1, 3-Glu β-1, 3-glu was evaluated by Real-time RT-PCR method. Results showed that, on the second day after treatment, 500 and 2,500 ppm concentrations of aqueous neem extract inhibited 64.79 and 73.48% of eggs hatching, respectively. In the greenhouse conditions, the four studied plant extracts (neem, marigold, Thymus, and caraway) at 1,500 ppm concentration significantly suppressed the development and reproduction of M. javanica terms of eggs/plant root, egg-masses, numbers of galls, nematode population in soil and, consequently, enhanced growth of the plants. In addition to the activity of the enzymes, the expression levels of these defense enzymes were also increased by the use of plant extracts.

The present work was aimed to investigate the life cycle and the effect of different initial population densities of Globodera rostochiensis on potato yield and growth on the susceptible potato cultivar, Spunta, in Algerian environmental conditions. The length of the life cycle of G. rostochiensis differed among growing seasons and was 72 days or 699 DD6.2 for potatoes planted in mid-February and 66 days or 496 DD6.2 for potatoes planted in early November. A significant reduction in growth and potato yields was observed. The increase of initial Population densities (Pi) of G. rostochiensis were associated with a significant reduction in plant growth and potato yields. The maximum yield and plant height reductions were 85 and 75%, respectively, at the highest Pi of 512 eggs g-1 soil. The final nematode Population density (Pf) increased with the increase of the initial population densities. The Reproductive factor (Rf) initially increased with the increase of Pi up to 4 eggs g-1 soil and then decreased for Pi≥ 4, suggesting an intraspecies competition. Results contribute to the knowledge of G. rostochiensis thermal time requirements in Algerian environmental conditions and can be a valuable tool to develop appropriate potato cyst nematode control strategies considering that the nematode can also cause severe damage and yield losses at very low Pi densities.

Possible influence of 3 abiotic environmental factors (temperature, nitrogen salt, and benzimidazole) on wheat resistance to Puccinia triticina was studied. Under the effect of these factors, statistically significant decrease in the rust development was revealed for 6 wheat varieties. Specific changes of virulence in 6 pathogen monopustule isolates under the effect of those factors were revealed with high frequencies. Subjected to a particular factor, we observed an absolute coincidence of the infection types of seedlings infected with rust pathogen clones multiplied in the absence of this factor, and infection types of leaves, incubated in the absence of the factor, but infected with isolates, multiplied in the presence of this factor. Six subpopulations of the pathogen representing mixture of genotypes virulent to 2 wheat varieties under certain conditions were created. We did not find significant differences in two disease development indexes (number of pustules and uredospores’ number in pustule) in seedlings affected by a factor and infected with subpopulations multiplied in the absence of the factor, and disease development indexes in leaves not subjected to the factor but inoculated with subpopulations multiplied in the presence of this factor. According to the results, the influence of studied factors on expression of specific (vertical) and non-specific (horizontal) wheat seedling resistance to rust was not revealed. Obviously, significant decrease in the rust development under the effect of studied environmental factors is primarily (if not only) related to their influence on the pathogen virulence and aggressiveness.