فصلنامه فضای جغرافیایی
پیاپی 78 (تابستان 1401)

groundwater forms part of the water cycle and is a reliable source of water for human consumption, as well as in Iran, most of the water used in the drinking, agricultural and industrial sectors is supplied from groundwater. Due to the condition of Iran, due to the deficit surface water resources, the use of groundwater resources for water supply has been considered. 

1) Use of the Radial basis function of the neural network
If a generalized regression function of the neural network, PNN / GRNN, is selected, all of the network weights can be calculated as probable. In RBF, a Gaussian transmission function is used which is similar to a ring (GRNN) One of the benefits of these networks is its rapid learning of other networks, including the multi-layered perceptron network of MLPs. The Gaussian networks of the transfer function network are of an unidentified learning type, but the output is a controlled learning type. The network is very practical in simulating hydrological and hydrological issues, due to its rapid training, generalizability and ease of use.
 
2) Use a support vector machine
  A support vector machine is proposed based on the principle of minimizing structural error. A support vector machine can be used both for categorization issues and for the estimation of functions. used a new error function called ε-insensitive for machine application in regression problems, so that this function ignores errors that are at a given distance from actual values. This function is defined as How to design a network.
In this study, the data used were 95 piezo metric wells in the Amol-Babol Plain. Data were used with a mean average of 30 years. In order to simulate the depth of the groundwater table, effective factors such transmissivity of aquifer formations, precipitation values and distance from water resources. For the design of the network, for both models, there are two classes of training and testing data. One important criterion for training a network is the number of repetitions or epoch during training. The higher the number of replays, the error decreases so that training data can be converted, which will increase the number of unsuccessful repetitions at that time. for network optimization purposes, the goal of network training is to reduce network error, which can improve the relationship between the input and output of the model. Due to the lack of specific rules for designing artificial neural networks (ANNs), various structures have been investigated to optimize the design. Select the number and type of input parameters for the model is important. For this reason, seven design input patterns are given. Which was carried out in the software of the NeuroSolutions. 

for the optimal simulation model based on all parameters and the provision of all its input data will require a great deal of time and cost, a method based on the main parameters of input (optimal inputs) is modeled and validated. it was observed that the predicted aquifer level for both models is about to its actual value.

The results obtained with the Radial basis function and the support vector machine represent this point where the support vector machine and the radial function have the ability to have approximately the same ability to predict and modeling, although generally the results of the Radial basis function are more acceptable. The results of the model test are shown. As the results of the survey are presented, among the methods implemented in the model, using effective factors such as transmissivity of aquifer formations, precipitation values and distance from water resources to predict level of level The aquifer was used. The results of the test showed that the Radial basis function of the support vector machine with a correlation coefficient of 0.82 and a mean absolute error of 1.94 is an appropriate tool for prediction of water resource management.

Erosion is a selective process. And some of the clay particles that are important in fertility transmitted into small aggregates. Gradual transfer of these particles, it results in larger particles with less fertility. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out research on fertility and granolometry. This research was done to objective determine soil fertility losses due to dry-farming erosion and sediment granolometry. At first, provinces were studied for dry-farming areas and production and were selected four areas. Required soil transferred to rain and erosion simulator laboratory. Characteristics such as Particle size distribution (PSD), Nitrogen, Available Potassium and absorbable Phosphorus was measured and were determined the amount of fertility losses due to erosion and sediment granolometry. Results showed that in pishkamar and kouhin the particle size distribution of sediment was smaller than the main soil, in Sararood closer to the main soil and in Gachsaran more than the main soil. Total nitrogen of the main soil of pishkamar, Sararood, Kuhin and Gachsaran was obtained 0.08, 0.1, 0.06 and 0.09%, respectively. absorbable Phosphorus and Available Potassium in the selected areas, were calculated 4.76, 104.5 and 4.47, 359.5 and 2.02, 222.4 and 9.62, 360 mg / kg, respectively.

The Study of the spatial and temporal variations of groundwater quality plays an important role in the management of watershed fields in arid and semi-arid regions. Future climate parameters were predicted using HADCM3 and LARS-WG models under B1 and A2 scenarios and the data of minimum temperature, maximum temperature, precipitation and sunny hours of the base period (1992-1993) in the Silakhor -Borujerd agricultural plain. Dry and wet years were determined Using SPI drought index during the base period and future. Using the water quality data of 18 wells in the study area, the distribution of TDS, EC, PH, SAR parameters was studied using four main methods of geostatistic zoning (IDW, RBF, Kriging and Cokriging). The best model was selected using the root mean square root mean square error (RMSE). Finally, the effects of climate change and droughts on the geochemical parameters of water were investigated using factor analysis and analysis of variance. The results showed that for pH, TDS, SAR and EC parameters, conventional cokriging, simple coccygeal, simple cokriging and simple cokriging were more suitable. Among the studied parameters, TDS and EC had the highest correlation with mean temperature and SAR had no high correlation with the climate parameters. The pH parameter has a strong negative and significant negative temperature. The findings indicated that drought periods have no significant effect on water quality except PH. Climate change studies shows that by increasing the minimum and maximum temperatures, TDS and EC will increase in the future.

Reduction in groundwater volume in one hand, and resources and human activities growth on the other hand has let to water quality depletion. Therefore study and assessing water quality for various applications including agriculture and irrigation, drinking and industry is essential for the proper and efficient management of water resources and economic growth that enable sustainable economic and social development. 

In this study, the quality of groundwater for different uses was classified in Delfan plain using calcium, magnesium, chlorine, sodium, sulfate, acidity, electrical conductivity, sodium absorption ratios, total hardness and total salts of 29 deep wells for 5 years (2011-2016), and vulnerable areas in terms of drip systems implementation was identified. Delfan Plain is located at 47ᵒ 27ʹ to 48ᵒ 18ʹE longitude and 33ᵒ 50ʹ to 34ᵒ 18ʹ N latitude. This study area is 1892 km2 in average elevation of 1856 m above sea level in northwest of Lorestan province. About 1729 km2 of this area belongs to the altitudes and the rest to the alluvial zones, indicating that the area is mountainous. The aquifer of this plain has been investigated in the present study with an area of 239 km2.
In this research, different interpolation methods were used for water quality zoning. The methods used include Kriging, Inverse Distance Weighting, Global Polynomial Interpolation, Local Polynomial Interpolation and Radial Basis Function. Kriging: An estimation method based on the weighted moving average logic and ‎known as the best unbiased linear estimator‏ .‏IDW: This method is based on this fact that points that are closer have greater values than those are farther. In this method, for each measurement point, a weight based on the ‎distance between that point and the position of the unknown point is ‎considered. These weights are then controlled by the weighting power so that ‎the larger weights reduce the effect of points farther from the estimated ‎point and the smaller weights are distributed evenly between adjacent ‎points. LPI: This method considers a short range of ‎variations in the input data and is sensitive to neighborhood intervals in ‎the shared window. As the window moves and the surface values at the center of ‎each window at each point are estimated by fitting a polygon. This method has higher ‎flexibility than the local estimator method. These two methods require no ‎assumptions for the data‏.‏ RBF: The radial function is a function as Φj ‎‎(X) = Φ (X-Xj) which is dependent on the distance between x = Rd and the fixed ‎point Rd ε Xj. In this function, Φ is a continuous and dependent function of ‎each RdεΩ subunit. R represents the Euclidean distance between any pair of ‎points in the set O. This method has 5 kernel functions: Completely ‎Regularized Spline, Spline with Tension, Multiquadratic, Inverse ‎Multiquadratic and Thin Plate Spline. It is necessary to evaluate the accuracy of each method or to select the ‎appropriate parameter. There are several methods in this regard, the most ‎important one is cross-validation. In this method, comparison between observed and estimated values is carried out using specific methods.In this research, to classify water quality, Scholer, Wilcox, and Langlier saturation indices were used.Scholler diagram is one of the most importantclassifications for drinking water ‎quality. Scholler diagram is a semi-logarithmic diagram showing the concentration of ‎the major ions in meq/liter. In this graph, water is divided by the chemical parameters ‎of sodium, chlorine, sulfate, calcium, magnesium and pH for drinking purposes‏.‏ To determine the quality of agricultural water, Wilcox classification is used which is one of ‎the most important classifications in this field. In this classification, ‎agricultural water quality according to EC and SAR is categorized into four groups of good ‎quality, acceptable, inappropriate and bad‏.‏ The Langlier saturation index is used to determine the quality of water for industrial use. It should be noted that this indicator is the most important indicator of water quality ‎assessment to the implementation of drip irrigation systems because it is used in low water ‎speed systems‏.‏ 

Results and discussion

‎According to RMSE index for different interpolation methods, ordinary kriging is a suitable method for zoning SAR, Na, Cl, SO4 and LSI index. RBF method is suitable for zoning. EC, TDS, and Mg, IDW1 method is for zoning TH and Ca, and IDW2 is suitable methods for pH zoning. The combination of qualitative layers of lowland aquifer for agricultural purposes ‎showed that 4.8% of the plain is good and 82.16% of plain is in poor, while bad quality points were not found. In terms of drinking, 48.14 percent of the aquifer ‎has good quality and 9.6 percent is has poor quality. The eastern part of the aquifer generally has ‎ the best quality for drinking and agriculture purposes. According to the zoning map, this index has the highest amount of LSI in the north and ‎east areas, so there are limitations for implementing drip systems in these areas.

Conclusion‎

Assessment of qualitative maps showed that there are some limitations in some parts of the ‎plain in terms of groundwater quality for different uses. These limitations include restrictions on ‎residential development, the use of water-sensitive crops, and the implementation of ‎drip irrigation systems during corrective measures such as using acid and temperature changes. ‎Hence, operating and maintaining of this system is faces to problem. In areas with poor ‎water quality and high LSI index, it is recommended to install treatment plants to improve the ‎quality of drinking water as well as to use a proportional crop pattern compatible to available water quality such as ‎the use of salinity tolerant crops, and not use the clog-sensitive dripper.

Accurate understanding of geomorphological processes plays an impoortant role in the management of soil erosion. Soil erosion caused by the development of gully is one of the serious environmental problems that disturbs the balance of natural systems through the loss of water and soil. Dendrogeomorphology is one of the new techniques to determine the erosion based on the appreciation of the morphology and structure of the tree roots and stems and it is a suitable substitute to traditional methods. This method is appiable for parts of roots that have been exposed by erosion processes and are datable.After tree root exposure due to the gully erosion, suckers can develop. In this study, the estimation of gully erosion rate in Nilcooh (Galikesh) catchment was carried out based on dendrogeomorphological analysis of annual growth ring of suckers formed on roots. In this regard, a total of 23 samples from the roots of broadleaf trees, including Evangelical and wild persimmons, that  have been exposed after erosion, were dated. The minimum and maximum ages of roots were 3 and 18 years respectively. In this study, roots that their ages were from 2001 to 2016 were sampled during 2013-2016. During sampling, the information such as dimension of gully and geographical coordinates were also recorded. then Samples were dried in natural conditions and have been sanded for better clarity. Results of this study reveal that the rate of gully bed erosion increases as elevation and gradient of earth surface increases while the rate of lateral gully erosion decreases as elevation and gradient of earth surface increases. The average of annual volume erosion of gully is 0.043 m3 and the rate of the average of lateral and bed gully erosion are 0.153 and 0.036 meter respectively.

this paper is to compare the PPK schemes with RTK help of GCPs in the images for the second time with the help of GCPs in the images is to map the map and the second time with the help of GCPs the map is prepared and without the help of GCPs the map is prepared in this research different types of effective geometric errors in spatial accuracy of agricultural land cadastre map were investigated the accuracy of check points geometric displacement of parts and error of sampling stations in the area were calculated . considering the geometric errors obtained and using the geometric mean of these errors we achieve a comprehensive geometric error for converting UAV images into cadastre map . due to the geometrical errors and using the geometric mean of these errors, we achieve a comprehensive geometric error for converting the attitude of UAV to execution map of cadastre. in this study, due to the examination of points of checks, geometric displacement station error in the region we obtained 0.011746, 0.0815715, 0.054557, which can be achieved due to geometrical errors and using the geometric mean of these errors we achieve a total geometrical error of 0.098835 m for converting the attitude of UAV to cadastre map. This amount of error is suitable due to the direction of the mapping organization to provide maps of 1: 1000

The city needs ecology for survival and an economy for sustainable growth. These components are found in the form of the city as effective communication between the ecological components and the sustainable economy. On the other hand, uncontrolled physical development has limited the ecological capacities and capabilities of natural ecosystems. And unbalanced economic activities have disturbed the biological balance in all aspects of human life and the form of the city. For this purpose, the Noh-Darreh neighborhood of Mashhad has been selected due to its ecological background of the southern highlands for tourism development, along with the risk of ecological degradation of the region due to inefficient morphology and abnormal social groups and economic opportunities. To reach a practical solution to the problem by spatial analysis of the relationships of the influential components in this neighborhood. for this purpose, a questionnaire consisting of characteristics and components whose validity and reliability was measured in the neighborhood were developed. The questionnaire was distributed among 378 residents in Noh-darreh. using analytical tools, lisrel 8.8 and spss22 software and by structural equation modeling technique, the relationships of components and their effects were investigated. Also, in line with the main purpose of the research, using the Spatial Analysis tool of GIS software, the spatial analysis was performed based on the relationships between the components of the research. Finally, according to the research findings, it can be said that the indicators related to improving the housing situation of people in the ecological context of the neighborhood have a significant impact on improving its sustainability. The primary nucleus of the Noh-Darreh neighborhood is at its lowest in terms of the characteristics of the overlapping maps produced to determine the status of the components in the Noh-Darreh morphology. As a result, the most important non-invasive strategy in the Noh-Darreh neighborhood can be considered to promote economic sustainability in the ecological context to improve housing. this strategy, whose practical solutions are based on statistical results obtained from the criteria, can be considered as a turning point in solving the problems of the physical context of the Noh-darreh.

Base flow response to rainfall components varies in different climates and knowing the interaction between rainfall components with the base flow can lead to improvement and development of prediction in ungagged catchment. In this study, the catchments in each climatic zone were separated using the intersection of the climate map and the boundary layer of catchments. At least 30 hydrometric stations from each climatic zone were selected with common period of 1976-2011. Then, average annual rainfall and rainy days in each basin were calculated. The base flow index was separated using daily flow data and with B-Flow-Lynie & Holick algorithm. The relationships between the base flow index and the number of rainy days and average annual rainfall in different climate were calculated and the results were analyzed and interpreted. The results showed that in more than 66% of the catchments of different climatic zones, the average base flow index was more than 50%. Also, the highest frequency of catchments with base flow index less than 0.50 were for humid, semi-humid and very humid climates and the highest frequency of catchments in the range of more than 0.5 were found for “arid “and” semi-arid”. The Correlation between annual rainfall and base flow in the very humid, humid, semi-humid and Mediterranean" climatic zones have a positive coefficient and in the "arid" and "semi-arid" regions were negative. Correlation of the number of rainy days with the base flow in the selected catchment in all climatic zones showed a positive correlation. The highest coefficient of determination between rainy days and base flow index was 0.57 to semi-arid regions and the lowest coefficient was 0.14 to the catchments of arid zone. This was approximately equal to about 0.34 for humid and semi-humid zones.

Drought is a climatic phenomenon that occurs in almost all climatic zones and more than any other hazard affects human life and the environment. In order to statistically analyze the synoptic occurrence of dry falls in Northwestern Iran, the monthly precipitation data records of 15 synoptic stations were received from the Iranian Meteorological Organization during the statistical period of 1987-2016. Standard rainfall index and DIC software were applied to identify and differentiate dry fall seasons within the study area in the recorded data period. The results of SPI method showed that the frequency of occurrence of normal situation and then drought in mild and moderate intensities occurred more in the stations of the region during the anticipated time cycle. Then, daily data of 500 hPa and ground level with coordinates of 10 to 75°eastern longitude and 20 to 70° northern latitude in dry periods were received from the total reconstructed data of NCEP/NCAR site and by applying the PCA analysis of synoptic patterns for effective factors in the occurrence of dry falls, the results were interpreted and analyzed by the use of 500 hPa level maps and sea level pressure (SLP). The results of this study showed that in dry falls, severe positive surface anomalies are observed due to high pressure infiltration and positive anomalies are seen at the level of 500 hPa due to the high-level governance in the region and the establishment of high-altitude system on Iraq and Syria which is the most important drought factor. Also, by examining Hoff Müller diagrams, the 700 hPa level in the dry summers of the Northwest indicates a significant decrease in the humidity of this level, especially in the southern latitudes (15 to 30°north) in 4 of the 5 study samples, which indicates the importance of low pressure systems. The Sudanese and Sudanese-Mediterranean combination of pressure play a major role in the injection of moisture into the study area.

In the midst of environmental hazards, earthquakes destroying buildings and urban infrastructure, it causes a great deal of damage to property and property in and around urban areas. Facing this situation, developing resilient communities is the most appropriate strategy to deal with the earthquake crisis. The first step in a principled and conscious planning of creating resilient communities, measuring the resilience of urban structures against possible earthquakes. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the physical resilience of district 6 of Tehran against various earthquake scenarios. Ten effective criteria were used to measure 46 sub-criteria that were effective in physical resilience of the area. The research method is descriptive-analytical with practical purpose. To Analyze the Relative Weight of Criteria and Sub-Criteria of Network Analysis (ANP) and for designing earthquake scenarios at different intensities Fuzzy method and Dµ model in GIS environment were used. The results of the study showed that In earthquake of six magnitude 12.36% of total structures in the region Most located in one district municipality (Iranshahr neighborhood) and 2 district municipality (Nosrat neighborhood), They have little resilience to earthquakes. In Richter earthquake of seven, 55.24% of structures in the region have low resilience and 17.69% of structures have very little resilience to earthquakes. In the Eight earthquake of eight, with increasing earthquake intensity, 23.06% of structures in the region have low resilience and 53.31% of structures have low resilience. Most of these structures are located in district 6 of Tehran city in district 1 (Iranshahr and Valiasr neighborhood), 2 (Nosrat neighborhood), 3 (Behjat Abad and Ghaem neighborhoods), 4 (Fatemi neighborhood) and 5 (Argentina neighborhood).