نشریه تحقیقات تاریخ اجتماعی
سال دوازدهم شماره 1 (بهار و تابستان 1401)

The advent of the industrial revolution and the change in the scientific and technical bases of production made technical and professional education and its prerequisite, i.e., literacy, an unavoidablele necessity. The communist revolution in Russia and its widespread propaganda about the rights of workers, including the right to education, turned this issue into a fundamental one in the field of politics and society, not only in industrialized countries, but also new countries including Iran encountered the industrial modernization. Therefore, the first Pahlavi government reluctantly gave in to the education of workers. The present essay seeks to answer the question what policies did the governments of the Pahlavi implement for the education of workers from the beginning to 1953? The findings of present study which are based on Archival records, library materials and newspaper show that the inherent need of new industries for formal education on the one hand, and the need to counter communist propaganda and prevent the recruitment of workers by internal leftist groups on the other hand, left no other way than formal literacy for the first Pahlavi government and Finally in the relatively open political atmosphere of the 20s led to the enactment of the first official law on labors education and literacy.

Recently archaeological excavations in the eastern cemetery of Qara tepe, Sagzābād, have uncovered graves related to the late second millennium and the first half of the first millennium B.C. (Iron ages 2 and 3). Thankfully, with the excavation of this cemetery, we have obtained some findings based on which we can reconstruct part of the social aspects of the life of the societies of the first millennium BC in the region. Graves are one of the most important archaeological contexts for discovering prestige goods. There are many questions and ambiguities in the field of prestige goods, changes in their type and value over time, and how they were distributed in the region in the Iron Ages 2 and 3. Given the theoretical discussions raised about prestige and prestige goods and the results of the excavations in this cemetery, finds such as sea shells, decorative beads made of carnelian and antimony, cylindrical seals of the neo-Assyrian style, cylindrical seals with geometric designs, and iron ornaments and tools can be considered as prestige goods. The evidence of this cemetery indicates the elites' efforts in the first millennium B.C. to maintain their social prestige by achieving new categories of prestige goods. As a sign of connection and interaction with distant lands, these goods could play an influential role in maintaining and developing elites' prestige and social status. Moreover, the finds of this cemetery indicate the efforts of some lower ranks of the society to increase their social prestige and use its advantages.

After the collapse of the Achaemenids, with the arrival of Alexander in Iran and the establishment of the Seleucid dynasty, the city-building and settlement policy of Greek immigrants in Iran was implemented by Alexander and the Seleucids in order to achieve their political goals. The presence of Greeks in Iran, of course, with the support of their own government, caused changes in various cultural aspects of Iran. It can be assumed that the role and position of women in Iranian society was also influenced by Greek culture. Considering this issue, the problem of this research is raised as follows; What effect did the spread of Greek culture have on the role and status of Iranian court women during the Seleucid and Parthian eras? The findings of this research show that women in the Greek culture of the Hellenic era had a higher position than in the pre-promotion periods. Accordingly, the spread of Greek culture in the post-Achaemenid Iranian society had a positive effect on the role and status of women. Reports in some texts of ancient historians and unearthed works from archaeological excavations in the territory of the two Seleucid and Parthian states provide the most available information about the status of women of the upper classes of the society. From the information of such sources, it can be inferred that women have a very active and prominent presence in various political and social fields during this period. Their presence in social, economic, religious or artistic activities, with the finding of figurines and seals and the effect of seals and other works in different regions and based on the data of the texts of some ancient historians, clearly shows that the role and position of women in The Parthian and Seleucid period not only did not decline, but also had many developments under the influence of Hellenism.

The impoverished community is an undeniable part of political and social life in different historical periods, even though there is no place for them in history. The policy and approach of governments towards this community or, if it can be said, the social group is a very important issue that is less discussed. With the formation of the Safavid government and the establishment of a centralized government, policies to support the poor of the society throughout this period were considered with different motives and goals. The Safavid government tried to alleviate the hardships of their miserable lives by helping the poor by building charities, endowments, food, cash donations, and so on. Therefore, this research seeks to answer the question with descriptive-analytical method, what policies did the Safavid government have to support the poor and what goals did it pursue from the implementation of these policies? Accordingly, the results of the research indicate that the Safavid government in various social and economic dimensions, including by providing the needs of the poor, helping their health, providing and providing the scientific and cultural development of the poor by establishing schools, etc. It had an important effect on improving the living conditions of the poor. In addition, the Safavid government in this period, in order to achieve goals such as eradicating poverty and misery, gaining political legitimacy among the masses and showing a benevolent and religious image of itself along with other political and social goals, politics of attention and Followed the arrest of the poor.

From the beginning of human life, women worked alongside men for livelihood. As life became more complex, especially with the formation of local governments and then the great kingdom which led to the division of labor among different sections of society, women also played a role in this new life in different ways. With the formation of the great Achaemenid Empire and the expansion of economic activities that required more labor, women alongside men, became more active in economic activity. Much has been written about the status of women, especially the political, social, and economic activities of court women during the Achaemenid period, but no coherent work has been done about the socio-economic role of lower-class women in this period. Therefore, based on Persepolis inscriptions and other ancient sources and with a descriptive-analytical approach, using the method of historical studies, in this research an attempt has been made to study the status and socio-economic activities of the lower-class women in Achaemenid period. In other words, this study seeks to answer the fundamental question of whether women of the lower classes of Achaemenid society participated in socio-economic activities and in which kind of occupation they were mostly engaged in. Evidence shows that in parallel with men, they were active in the social and economic activities of society and worked in various occupations, in many cases and based on their skills, they received equal wages as men.

Food and its types in the Achaemenid Empire are among the topics related to the social history of this period. Meat and its types are among the foods consumed in the ancient world. Remaining documents from the Achaemenid era show its prevalence in the court and among the people. What kind of meat consumed in the Achaemenid period is the main issue of present paper, which is considered important in clarifying issues related to social, economic, cultural and political life of this period? We used various sources such as Persepolis tablets, inscriptions, written texts, etc. our investigation shows that the geographical conditions of the Achaemenid Empire were such that access to various types of meat was possible through hunting or breeding animals and birds. The economic situation of the people living in the Achaemenid Empire, which was due to their social status or profession, played a decisive role in how and to what extent this type of food was available. In addition, the available evidence, especially the data from the Persepolis tablets, indicate meat and its types as an important components of the food basket of the court and courtiers.

Female Icons and images of women have been displayed in a wide range of artworks in Sassanian period, especially on the silverwares. These feminine icons are reflection of the beliefs and ideas of Iranians toward women in Iranian society which owe their existence to the craftsmen and artists. Therefore, the significance of the study of the female icons carved on Sasanian silver vessels, is undeniable. In this study, images of royal couples on three Sassanian silverwares, have been studied, according to Erwin Panofsky method, who is one of the pioneers in the field of art history. In this method, the details of each icon, have been described, firstly. Then, the iconographical descriptions have been provided. Finally, the iconological analysis of each image has been presented according to the previous findings. The present study, suggests that the tradition of associating with women in banquets, which has been also mentioned in literary and historical texts, is rooted in the ancient culture of ancient Iran and has always been one of the most important and prominent components of this culture.

hušnūdī and hūnsandī are among the most fundamental concepts in ancient Iranian worldview, a way of looking at the world in which all degrees of happiness have a high significance and one of the most genuine forms of happiness arises from a feeling of hušnūdī and hūnsandī. Considering the importance of these concepts in ancient Iranian texts, conducting research on the meaning and concepts of these words from Avesta to new Persian can help us to understand the ancient Iranian worldview. Using a descriptive-analytical approach, the present study attempts to find the origins of these two words and trace the journey of the concepts around them in Avesta and Pahlavi texts. After studying several examples, it can be understood that hušnūdī and hūnsandī both emerge frequently in ancient Iranian texts and their meaning equals to happiness and satisfaction, respectively. In Avesta and Pahlavi texts, the need to get the gratification of Ahuramazda and deities has repetitively been emphasized and gratification here equals to happiness and satisfaction. In addition, many words can be found which are similar to the word satisfaction and are connected with satisfaction, happiness, work and endeavor, selflessness and most important of all, wisdom. In this point of view, we are encouraged to try to make the earth a better place and, at the same time, not become attached to it. In addition, due to the existence of destiny-oriented worldviews, wisdom is sometimes used synonymously with illuminated meanings such as avoiding avarice, and world’s unreliability.

The constitutional revolution provided a suitable ground for the emergence of various associations and social organizations throughout Iran. The main issue of this research is to examine the first experience of organizational and group activity in Kurdistan in the form of constitutionalist engines and how Qajar agents faced them during the constitutional period (1329-1324 AH). The question is, when and how were the state and provincial associations, municipality and other associations of Kurdistan formed? What were their constitutions and what actions did they take? How did the governing institutions interact with them and why and how were they dismantled? The findings of this research, written on the basis of a descriptive and analytical method, show that the Kurdish constitutionalists created various associations and organizations in Kurdistan by modeling the activities of the constitutionalists of Tehran and Azerbaijan and expanded people's participation in the activities. Political and social issues helped. On the other hand, the ruling statesmen, who were still inclined towards the traditional system of governance, prevented their plans from progressing with different methods and means. Despite this, the constitutionalists did not back down and the conflicts between the two sides continued until the end of this period

In the fourteenth century, two French novels were published under the name “Melusine”. Melusine was a semi-human-semi-animal creature (snake or fish). She brought wealth and fertility to his human husband, but on the condition that her husband never watches her while bathing. The pact was broken and she was forced to leave her husband and family forever. In Eurasian stories, we come across similar stories, but there are some differences. According to Georges Dumézil, in order to be a melusinian story, it must have these three elements: a human and a fairy meet, there is a requirement or a pact, the pact is broken and the fairy goes away. In Iranian mythology, we encounter such motives. In this article, we tried to compare some Iranian stories with Melusine's story. The stories of Fayez and Perry, and Hassan Basri are among those which clearly have a melusinian pattern. In the case of Siavash, it may not be easy to talk about a melusinian pattern, although the existence of several elements of the story of Melusine can give some clues to recognize an underlying pattern, and these elements can even lead us to find a few missing motifs in the myth of Siavash.

Iranian culture considers ideal women in every period which has been expressed from the earliest times by means of engravings and later in written texts. Research on this issue is very important and it is a suitable way to analyze a corner of Iranian culture and thinking about women. Especially, this investigation should be done in the ancient period, to where the roots of Iranian thoughts belong. Since the use of original written sources belonging to each period is necessary for the research in this issue and the abundance of ancient written sources in the Sasanian period is obvious, in this article, an attempt has been made to investigate and analyze this issue in Sassanian period. The method of collecting information is library and the research method is descriptive-analytical. The main sources in question are Middle Persian texts. The findings show that the characteristics of an ideal woman in Sassanin period were defined in relation to the position of mother and wife. In addition to ideals in the field of female beauty, moral field, there are expectations for examples of obedience, loyalty and commitment, taking care and raising the child. There is also financial independence and economic prudence which despite the patriarchal view, clearly states the importance of women's role in the family.

The extension of the ancient Iranian community to the Paleolithic era had long made the structure of the patriarchal system portray women as an important segment of society living on the Iranian plateau and present them as the source of blessing and life. Now, considering the changes that took place in the social and political system of Iranians (in the time of the Medes until the decline of Sassanian power), one of the issues is what position women had in Iranian societies due to their ability to childbearing, and what has been the approach of religious texts (Avestan and Pahlavi) and civil society, which is revealed through historical documents, to the issue of marriage (marital bond) and especially childbearing. Also, in the Achaemenid and Sassanid patriarchal society, what role did pregnant mothers and women played in the economy of society and the family, and in this case, what measures were taken to improve the well-being of working mothers? On this basis, these results are obtained by using the library method and analysis of historical and religious texts, as well as by studying the tablets of Persepolis and by analyzing the information extracted from sources and citations due to the importance of the family system in the religious and civil society of the ancient Iranians, marriage was considered an important matter that led to the birth and multiplicity of the family and society. Also, as the evidence proves, mothers and of course, pregnant women were involved in the family economy and along with their children, brought prosperity to the family and society. Therefore, and for the reasons mentioned above, in addition to the value that religious texts and Iranian society place on pregnant women and the issue of childbearing, we are witnessing measures to protect and maintain them and provide services and facilities to pregnant and working mothers.