نشریه نسیم خرد
سال هشتم شماره 1 (پیاپی 14، بهار و تابستان 1401)

Suhrawardi brought about a revolution in Iranian and Islamic thought by compiling the Hikmat al-Ishraq (The Wisdom of Illumination) and establishing the School of Illumination (Ishraq). Suhrawardi’s illumination wisdom and thought, including the collection of his works and philosophical and mystical thoughts, is well presented in his book entitled Hikmat al-Ishraq. Like Farabi, Suhrawardi did not write an independent work on the utopia, but he spoke about the ideal ruler and the right to rule. Furthermore, in his allegorical works, more than anything else, he has referred to moral points which can lead a society to salvation. Suhrawardi’s philosophy is based on the originality of light, showing that he has paid attention to the philosophers of ancient Iran. Moreover, Suhrawardi has frequently referred to Khosravani wisdom, and the sages of ancient Iran, such as Zoroaster and Ki Khosro; for example, in terms of politics and government, he has considered Kei-Khosro’s government a desirable one. Another pillar of Suhrawardi’s thought is the Islamic Book and tradition; thus, his view about the government and ruler is consistent with Islamic teachings. In addition, he has considered himself indebted to the divine philosophers of Greece, such as Pythagoras and Plato, and other divine philosophers of the world, such as Hermes. Additionally, he took many of the views of his predecessor philosophers, such as Farabi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna); therefore, it can be possible that he agreed with Farabi in many aspects about utopia and its governing characteristics and conditions.

Martyr Ayatollah Beheshti, a contemporary thinker and philosopher, in his anthropology, has introduced the human being as a moving and continuously “becoming” being that can be on the course of growth and follow the path of perfection. There are various theories on the origin of motion and becoming in ontology, and Hegel’s dialectic theory can be considered as one of the most prominent theory. . On the other hand, Islamic thinkers have refuted this theory, and Martyr Beheshti has adopted the law of contradiction, attraction and healing. According to this theory, man evolves when he faces contradiction and tends towards one of the contradictions, and this continuous evolution is the very motion and ‘becoming’ in the eyes of Beheshti. This law has a clear manifestation in his anthropology, and originates from anthropology in human social systems, such as political, legal and educational systems. In the present study, through the descriptive-analytical method, while explaining and criticizing Hegel’s dialectic theory, we have discussed Ayatollah Beheshti’s viewpoint about the agent of motion in metaphysics, we have made use of this viewpoint in explaining the ‘becoming of a human being’, and we have pointed out its effects in Beheshti’s educational and political thoughts.

Since long ago, the methodology of philosophy has had different angles in the thought of the researchers of philosophy, one of the deep layers of which can be considered Allameh Tabatabai’s theory of ‘Methodological Restriction of Philosophy’, in ‘a posteriori argument in general concomitance’. This study elaborates the foundations of this thought through a descriptive and analytical method, and criticizes its opposing views. It aims at studying the direct effect of Allameh Tabatabai’s philosophical foundations on his methodology, and emphasizes that in view of the congruence of his basis and innovative method there is no objection to Allameh’s presentation of this theory. The importance of examining and verifying Allameh’s theory in this way becomes clear when we know that the students of philosophy, in dealing with this theory, face opposing views from the very beginning and do not reflect on the philosophical foundations of this methodology. However, more and closer reflection shows that the foundations of transcendental wisdom do not yield a method other than Allameh’s suggested method, and if the critics do not accept this method, they will confront with basic problems.

Mohammad-Reza Hakimi called some jurists’ attitude towards human sciences, which entered the religious field from other fields, ‘the School of Separation’. The followers of this school, facing the human sciences, have had more concerns about ideology and divine teachings. They have differing views in jurisprudence and politics, but they have agreed on the fact that the religion, which is based on the clear text of the Qur’an and Sunna, must be separated from the human sciences, which are changing and transforming every moment; these sciences must be prevented from entering into the realm of religion so that the truth of the views of the Qur’an and Ahl al-Bayt could be understood in various topics. It is obvious that if these sciences enter into the realm of religion, they lead to the emergence of new interpretations of the Qur’an and Sunna, which results in moving away from the school of revelation. ‘Separation’ here means separating the understanding of religious texts from Islamic philosophy and Islamic mysticism, which are among human sciences. Hakimi separated intellection from philosophy, and believed that opposition to philosophy is not necessarily opposition to intellection, but one can make use of ‘innate and inherent intellection’ in ‘the light of Revelation’, and achieve new religious teachings. This study seeks to reveal Hakimi’s intellectual foundations in this field.

When one makes use of reasoning to know the truth, he must first correctly imagine its parties and components so as to acknowledge and accept the content of any reasoning. Intuition of the heart is among the things that are effective in the subject’s achievement of the correct perception. What is the relationship between the mind that perceive the problem and the intuition of the heart? What is the characteristic of the intuition of the heart that creates such a capability in the mind? First, we should explain the importance and position of the correct perception of the problem and point out that the mind has various orders in relation to the understanding reality, and it is the intuition of the heart that promotes the level of the mind and illuminates it with the light of discovery. Then, following the perception of the heart, which is a kind of intuitive knowledge, the reason gets a correct image of reality. The main point of this achievement of heart intuition should be considered in its being intuitive, which is, of course, very different from the image that merely acquired knowledge gives of the problem. In other words, intuition sharpens a philosopher’s eyes and ears and draws his attention to points of the problem that have been neglected so far.

The explanation of revelation and ascension in Mulla Sadra’s view is tied to the concept of revelation and intuitive knowledge; therefore, in this study, we have examined these related concepts. Mulla Sadra did not explain his views on each of these concepts in a systematic way and in one text. However, we can get a clear picture of his view on this subject matter by examining and categorizing his collection of words.  For him, ascension is the result of sincere deeds that strengthen the mystic’s soul and prepare the ground for his connection to the transcendental world and unity with supreme causes. Since, according to Mulla Sadra, all existence is the existence of a single person, the mystic can dominate the orders of existence with this spiritual evolution. From this viewpoint, revelation is merely a kind of formal apocalypse and ascension is also explainable, and Mulla Sadra sought to answer some doubts about the physical ascension of the Prophet by using some philosophical findings such as an ideal body.

Happiness and misery have been basic issues and main concern of mankind since the creation. For Ayatollah Mojtaba Qazvini, the discussions related to happiness and misery as raised in philosophy and mysticism are against teachings of the Qur’an; however, some philosophers, such as Mulla Sadra who seeks to harmonize the Qur’an, proof and mysticism, do not have such an idea. This study is an introduction to the examination of philosophers’ viewpoints on this issue and reconciling the views of Ayatollah Mojtaba Qazvini and Mulla Sadra, and taking steps towards creating harmony between Islamic philosophy and the teachings of the Qur’an. The evaluation of the views of these two thinkers about the happiness and misery showed that, in general, Ayatollah Qazvini did not provide sufficient and convincing reasons against philosophy, and his view about the determinism of philosophers, including Mulla Sadra, is not correct. Ayatollah Qazvini considered happiness and misery to be optional, but he believes in the secondary nature of misery and its immutability. From his point of view, happiness and misery in philosophy are deterministic and inviolable, but Mulla Sadra clearly listed the voluntary factors of happiness and mentioned man-made obstacles in the way to happiness.

Understanding transcendental philosophy as a systematic system of ontology and dominance over its studied fields require paying attention to the foundations and type of methodology governing it. Transcendental philosophy is an Islamic philosophy in which there are intuition, religious text and theoretical mysticism, and knowing its methodology seems more necessary. This paper aims at solving the ambiguities and answering the questions that the researcher of Islamic philosophy, especially in transcendental philosophy, faces and considers them in conflict with the philosophical identity of transcendental philosophy. The source of these ambiguities and questions are thoughts based on the intuition of the philosopher himself or the intuition of the mystics or the religious text. In this study, after analyzing and evaluating two explanations of the methodology of transcendental philosophy, i.e. the claim of ‘context of discovery and judgment’ and the claim of ‘individual method and universal method’, we presented an explanation that can make these assertions compatible and answer the researcher’s questions in transcendental philosophy and its methodology.

Revelation is one of the pillars of prophecy and the only means of the Infallible to transmit religion to humanity. However, a group has sought to negate this intera-religious issue or reduce it to an inner experience and general inspiration. Mulla Sadra’s statements prove the point that man by himself is not able to develop theoretical and practical intellect, implement individual and social justice, and manage the spiritual dimension and the worldly life; thus, Allah, the Almighty, should assist the man so that he can arrive at a conclusion in the sciences, teachings, realities, and management of attachment, and this is possible through revelation. Furthermore, the explanation of the truth of revelation from Mulla Sadra’s viewpoint shows that revelation and Gabriel are not restricted to an intellectual truth which cannot be reduced; rather, but Gabriel experiences an ideal reduction while he maintains his intellectual rank, and the Prophet also sees the angel of revelation with his own eyes and hears revelation with his own ears. This explanation of the revelation opens the way for understanding many Quranic verses and hadiths.

Free-will is one of the complex issues in metaphysics in its particular sense, especially the free-will of the most high Necessary existent, which is seemingly incompatible with the considering realization of the act from Him as necessity; That is, if He is a free agent, His act must not be necessary, and if His act is necessary, then He must not be a free agent. The necessity of the act entails being a free agent, not being a free-willed agent. Islamic Philosophers have presented similar and different views about the criterion of freewill, whether the free-will is in humans or in the most high Necessary existent. Allameh Tabataba’i is one of these philosophers, who has specified apparently different criteria in this field in his works, but the study and analysis of these criteria lead to the conclusion that all of them are different expressions of the same criterion: the agent is bound neither to action nor inaction, or the agent’s equal freedom in choosing action and inaction, which is called comparative contingency.

Connective existence and, its sub-category, independent existence are among the issues and predicates of philosophy, which have been discussed in the transcendental philosophy, both in the sphere of propositions and in the world of entities. In the world of propositions, the connective existence, the reality of which is being connective and otherness, if it is the same as the relation of judgment (between subject and the predicate), is necessary as a part of the composite whetherness affirmative proposition; but if not, it will be one of the concomitants of preposition, which will be sticked in the mind following affirmation and judgement. In the world of entities, all contingent entities, including substances and accidents of existences, are connective, and only Allah Exalted is considered an independent existence. This has left a tremendous impact on other philosophical issues, and study it based on Allameh Tabataba’’'s theory is the subject of this paper.

The kind of Imam Hussein’s look and belief and his mystical states in the event of Ashura, apart from the epic, emotional, and political approaches, has another comprehensive discourse which is beautifully manifested in the poems of mystics, such as Ṣafī ʻAlī Shāh, and does not provide sadness and humiliation in the event of Ashura; rather, the joy and dignity. In this study, after explaining the interpretative view of Ṣafī ʻAlī Shāh, the composer of the Zubdat al-Asrār (the Essence of Secrets), and comparing his view with some hadiths of the infallibles, the Ashura uprising was examined from the perspective of Islamic mysticism. This view depicts the Ashura heroes at the peak of human conquest and actually depicts a romantic world decorated with daggers, blades and arrows, wherein the beloved intoxicates the lovers with affliction and suffering. By changing the perception of an event, it is possible to transform the feelings arising from that event. In other words, emotions arising from human perceptions change human emotions by transforming into a more subtle vision. This Ṣafī ʻAlī Shāh’s semantic view spread to his students, such as Ummān-e Sāmāni, who wrote a magnificent work entitled Ganjineh Asrār.