پژوهشنامه مکتب های ادبی
پیاپی 21 (بهار 1402)

The aim of the present study was to read the context of Hafez's poems based on Gerard Genette’s theory of transmittance. Gerard Genette believes that hypertexts are the thresholds for entering the world of text and are therefore among the key indicators of textual comprehension and reception. In this research, relying on the trans-textual approach in Genette's trans-textual theory, Hafez's poems are examined. This analytical-descriptive research has been conducted through library studies. Genette believes that there is seldom a text that is naked. In other words, there are always words in the text that cover it either directly or indirectly. Therefore, there is no text without cover. The inner contexts of Hafez's poems in the form of concepts such as "Hafez's titles, Hafez’s narration style, self-reporting, other audience, realistic reading, atmosphere and offerings" and external contexts in form of concepts such as "imitators, contradictions, historians, commentators, illustrators, etc.” can be formulated. Findings indicate that Hafez's poems are a cover for internal contexts that complement the focal text of his poems, playing a significant role in the real dialogue between Hafez and his audience. On the other hand, external contexts around Hafez's poems have been present separately and discontinuously and have provided the ground for criticism and charm of Hafez's poetry.

Suicide is one of the social harms that is instigated by the impact of mental and psychological backgrounds, social situations and conditions. Emile Durkheim posits that according to the relationship between suicide statistics and the prevailing social conditions, societies are divided into coherent and incoherent groups based on which different types of suicide are committed. In this descriptive and analytical article, the suicides of the two characters Farhad and Shirin in Nizami’s Khosrow and Shirin are explained and analyzed through Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide and by relying on the foundations of the school of Romanticism. To this purpose, an attempt is made to explain the anomic and cytomic conditions of Sasanian period, and to investigate the effect of social anomic conditions on the choice and type of suicide of Farhad and Shirin. According to the results obtained, Farhad and Shirin's self-destruction is of an individualistic type, which follows social discontinuities, including insecurity, social isolation, deprivation, betrayal, family system breakdown, mistrust of the government system, lack of a sense of belonging to the society and family, aimlessness, discrimination, depression and non-acceptance of the prevailing conditions.

One of the most important aspects connecting poetry and myth is the poetic nature of myths. The creation of both poetry and myth owes much to the power of the artistic imagination of their creators. However, one of the most beautiful and artistic uses of myth in poetry is the "re-creation of myths", the purpose of which is to connect the past to the present and to provide grounds for mythological insight. In the contemporary period, even the most traditional poets have tried to bring these elements closer to their time by recreating the elements of myth. In other words, mythical adaptations are used to reflect their time. Nima Yooshij was one of the first poets to recreate a myth in the poems "Amen Chicken" and "Phoenix". Likewise, Sohrab Sepehri has linked contemporary poetry to traditional and classical Persian poetry by using elements of myth-making, especially mystical-religious elements. Due to various political and cultural currents and the tendency of poets to stick to the tenets of literary and artistic schools, Contemporary Persian poetry is full of mythological signs of contemporary poets. The purpose of this research is to explain how mystical-religious mythology is used based on romantic principles in Sohrab Sepehri's poetry in a descriptive-analytical way. Findings suggest that Sepehri has used many types of mystical-religious myths in his poems. His emphasis has been more on mythologizing the creation of the forbidden man and fruit, the creation of water, Buddhism, the prophets, and the Bible.

According to intellectual and social atmosphere, poets' encounter with death has been different in each period.In the contemporary period, modern poets, especially the new wavepoets, have been influenced by modernism and existentialist philosophy.Therefore, the main question of this research focuses on explaining modernist and ontological contexts of thinking of death and its manifestations in New Wave poetry.The descriptive-analytical method of this research enables the researchers to first examine the modernist elements and opinions of famous philosophers – notably Socrates, Plato, Heidegger, Sartre and Blanchot – about "death” and then classify and analyze the modernist-existentialist manifestations of death thoughts in New Wave poets. Findings indicate that new wave poets understand death as an ontological phenomenon.Therefore, as in pre-modern poetry, there is no mystical, fateful, or even Khayami type of death thought. Also, while Ahmadreza Ahmadi, Bijan Elahi, Hossein Rasail, Mahmoud Shojaei and Hoten Nejat have more individualistic and modernist tendencies in the face of death, in Javad Mojabi, Shahram Shahrokhtash, Mohammad Reza Aslani, and Bahram Ardabili’s poetry, ontological-modernist tendencies of death-thought are manifested along with a mixture of social concerns and unsettled political conditions; in addition, in Parviz Islampour and Hamid Irfan\s poetry, political suffocation and lack of freedom have led to death thoughts and, hence, modernist individualistic tendencies are placed in the background.

The proponents of Romanticism consider imagination to be the fundamental element of poetry, which allows the poet to create innovative and inspired works to enter the world of the unseen and unheard in order to make a new world. Fasting and the glorious customs of the holy month of Ramadan have been chosen as the theme and the imagery of most Persian poets. This study seeks to answer the following questions: How are the customs of Ramadan and fasting manifested in Persian poetry? And what is the place of poetic imagination in creating relevant images? The method used in this research is descriptive-analytical and the components of Ramadan and fasting were analyzed based on the frequency statistics obtained by software from the poets' works. The poets who paid the most attention to this issue were then selected and analyzed. Rumi, Saadi, Attar, and Qaani were the four who had the most frequency in this field. The main discussion is divided into three main areas under the headings: 1- Rhetorical images of Ramadan and fasting in Persian poetry 2- The customs of Ramadan and fasting 3- Purposes of Ramadan and fasting. Findings indicate that simile, allusion, and poetic etiology have had the most frequency. Also, intentionality, abstinence, and the manner of breaking the fast as rituals of Ramadan, and refinement and cultivation are some of the most important rituals in fasting and Ramadan in Persian poetry recreated by these poets’ imagination.

Non-verbal communication, which is one of the most important human cognitive tools in society, can be deciphered according to culture and language. The importance of this research is due to Sanai's types of sonnets and his focus on the lovers’ relationship. These are established in Sanai’s poetry according to the position, power, type of sonnet, and the choice of narrative and non-narrative expression style as well as their intentions which are classified as 1- sensory: focusing on the five senses 2- behavioral: focusing on actions of the special situations, and 3- cognitive and abstract: focusing on personal interpretation. One of the findings of this study is that most of the lover’s attention in non-verbal communication is cognitive. Also, most of the lover's non-verbal communication is sensory and especially visual, like coquetry and eyebrow movements. Therefore, in Qalandarian songs, some non-verbal relations are more private and new and are often accompanied by behavioral and cognitive actions. Also, the discourse of silence is almost absent in this kind of relationship. Although there are many conversations with the beautiful lover in the history of Persian literature, the non-verbal relations with the rebellious lover of Qalandar in Sanai's poetry are often behavioral and cognitive. Thus, it is concluded that non-verbal relationships in romantic sonnets are based on visual and sensory relationships, while in Qalandarian sonnets, the cognitive aspect of the relationships is more emphasized.