پژوهشنامه ادیان
سال شانزدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 32، پاییز و زمستان 1401)

This article discusses the historical criticism of the Bible, which originated among liberal Protestants with the belief that the Bible should be examined through a historical approach. While this approach was initially met with resistance from conservative Protestants, it later became a challenge for the Catholic Church as well. Prominent Catholic scholars such as Richard Simon and Alfred Loisy, as well as the Tübingen School, supported the movement, raising concerns within the church. The article aims to analyze how the Catholic Church addressed this challenge. The church was apprehensive that the historical-critical method would overlook the divine aspects of the Bible, resulting in a decline in biblical authority. Therefore, it denounced the trend and expelled its pioneers. However, the Catholic Church eventually came to understand that it needed to adapt to the modern age and recognize the relationship between theology, culture and human accomplishments. Consequently, it became more open towards the historical-critical method, acknowledging it as a viable approach towards biblical exegesis, despite its initial condemnation. In summary, this paper examines the historical criticism of the Bible, its origins and opposition, and how the Catholic Church eventually adapted and embraced this approach towards biblical interpretation.

The article discusses the relationship between feeling and intuition in Schleiermacher's On Religion. It highlights how Schleiermacher presents the human religious experience in the organic system of nature, drawing upon the sameness of subject and object within the thinking of the early romantics and the Spinozian context in the theological-philosophical system. Through linking intuition and feeling, Schleiermacher explains the connection between the finite and infinite, emphasizing the pre-theoretical nature of intuition. The article suggests that Schleiermacher's knowledge goes beyond the theoretical knowledge of philosophers like Kant and argues that his intuition and feeling should be considered within the spiritual and inner realm for humans. Additionally, the article touches on the novel topic of the turn from feeling to opinion in the third edition of On Religion (1826 AD). Overall, the main focus of the article is to explore the concept of intuition and feeling as presented in Schleiermacher's work.

The article discusses some traditions attributed to the Prophet of Islam, which prohibit Muslims from building tombs associated with Judeo-Christian behaviors. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad, the authors compare the burial practices of Abrahamic religions and the treatment of their co-religionists' tombs and corpses. Although there are similarities between these religions with regards to burial practices, there are also sharp differences. For instance, in Judaism and Christianity, it took a long historical distance and gap to build tombs over the dead graves. In contrast, the process of building tombs in Islam dates back to the period of the Prophet Muhammad himself. Some traditions suggest that the Prophet himself violated the sayings attributed to him regarding not making pilgrimage to the tombs. It is argued that this prohibition was set to counter Judeo-Christian and pre-Islamic cultural manifestations.

The article introduces the Karaite sect in Judaism, which emerged in response to the growth and final compilation of the oral tradition (Talmud) in the 8th century CE. The Karaites, under the leadership of Anan ibn David, believe only in the authority of the Bible and do not consider tradition or the oral Torah as valid sources. They adopted a literalist method for understanding the Bible and were more strict in religious practices compared to other Jewish sects. However, the Karaites' emphasis on individual freedom to interpret the Bible in the light of their own understanding led to a lack of cohesion and unity among them, resulting in various and sometimes conflicting thoughts within the sect. The article aims to examine the genesis of Karaitism and Jewish scripturalism, which played a significant role in the history of Judaism.

The Gospel of Thomas is one of the important texts of Nag Hammadi library. Paying attention to the external implementation of religious laws (Sharia) and its internals (Tariqa) are among the topics that have been mentioned to in this non-canonical text. In this Gospel, the fraudulent behavior of the Pharisees and their imitative traditions are criticized and Jesus encourages the disciples to correct the intention and perform religious practices with the presence of the heart. According to Islamic traditions, religious affairs are divided into Sharia and Tariqat. On this basis, Sufis, as the bearers of the spiritual dimension of Islam, consider the truth of religion including both aspects of Sharia and Tariqa, and they are two sides of the same coin and inseparable. They advise the seeker not to get caught up in the form and oblivious to the meaning while adhering to the Sharia and in addition to the implementation of Sharia laws, they must also take care of the interior of religious practices as the spiritual life of believers. This article compares the approach of the Gospel of Thomas and Islamic texts on this issue.

This article explores the emergence of scholastic mysticism in the Qom seminary, which has been taking place over the past few centuries. Shia scholars in Qom have always had an interest in mystical teachings, resulting in the inclusion of mysticism in the program of seminaries, both formally and informally. The article focuses on the factors that led to the emergence of scholastic mysticism in Qom seminary, specifically during the tenure of AbdulKarim Haeri and the beginning of Seyyed Hossein Boroujerdi's leadership. The article argues that scholastic mysticism in Qom is the result of the migration of mystics from Tehran and Najaf to the city. Those who came from Tehran brought with them theoretical mysticism, while those from Najaf practiced practical conduct. Scholastic mysticism in Qom was able to reach a more complete state by absorbing these two streams of mysticism. One of the most significant factors contributing to the emergence of scholastic mysticism in Qom was the transfer of partial authority to the city during Haeri's leadership, due to the easing of travel restrictions between Qom and other major cities such as Tehran and Isfahan. Additionally, the location of Qom, which has been a cradle of Islamic wisdom and mysticism for a long time, contributed to the influence of Iranian culture and elements of Iranian life within the Shia seminaries. In conclusion, this article sheds light on the emergence of scholastic mysticism in the Qom seminary and highlights its origins and factors. The inclusion of mysticism in the seminary curriculum has enriched the understanding of Islam and its teachings, and the Qom seminary has been instrumental in advancing this field of knowledge.

The article discusses the significance of prayer as a means of communication with God. Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of the Christian Science Movement, has a unique perspective on prayer that is worth considering. This movement gained popularity for its ability to reconcile science and health, with the primary goal of returning to the early Christianity and rediscovering its primary healing element. This movement is renowned for its spiritual healing approach to disease, as Eddy believed that illness was an illusion and could only be eliminated through prayer. Thus, prayer became the dominant approach in achieving the movement's objectives. Eddy contends that prayer has special concepts and special conditions, which will be studied in this article. According to Eddy, the spiritual meaning of prayer is to love all humans with affection. Real prayer is not asking God for anything, but rather aspiring to be good and do good work. In Eddy's view, the existential effects of prayer are spiritual progression and trust in God. Eddy believed that prayer is necessary for freedom from dangers such as judging.

The present study examines the views, social behavior, and cultural affairs of Hajj Mulla Ali NurAlishah Gunabadi, a prominent Sufi master of the Nimatullahi Sufi order, in order to gain insights into the relationship between Sufi conduct and social responsibility. The study uses a descriptive-analytical method and is a library based research. The first section defines social responsibility and explores notable views on the social roles of Sufis. The authors then discuss NurAlishah's forty-day period of seclusion and his social and cultural activities, including the establishment of the Mazare Soltani Sufi Center of Beidokht. The results of the study suggest that NurAlishah's devotion to fulfilling Sufi commands did not prevent him from engaging in society, which is a trait common among many Sufi masters. The issue of Sufism and its effect on social and cultural affairs remains a controversial topic among Iranian researchers, and this paper contributes to the ongoing discussion by examining the behavior and views of a prominent Sufi master.

The article explores the significant interaction between religion and wisdom in Zoroastrianism, with a focus on certain evidences from Zoroastrian texts. According to the research, God's wisdom is his fundamental nature (xēm), and religion is essentially God's wisdom. The authors also emphasize that God has created the world through his wisdom and based on the cosmic war, where to be the winner is rooted in a covenant between the Good and the Evil to fight against ignorance and extremism. This mutual interaction between religion and wisdom is hierarchical and manifested throughout the world. The research investigates the processes and concludes that their foundation is xradīharwisp-āgāh, which is the philosophical interdependence of religion and wisdom. By delving into these grounds, the research returns to the primary origin of God's wisdom, which is denoted by Justice or yazadān-xradīs, the highest manifestation of his wisdom in humans.

This study examines the position, description and division of monotheism in the works of two mystics: Khwajah Abd Allah al-Ansari and Baḥya Ben Joseph ibn Paquda, who are respected figures in Islamic and Jewish mystical traditions respectively. The study utilizes library research and a descriptive-analytical method to investigate their views. The article explains that monotheism, which is the basis of Judaism and Islam, is considered by Khwajah Abd Allah al-Ansari to be the final step of the mystical journey which he outlines in Manazel al-Saerin. Similarly, Ibn Paquda, in Al-Hidayah ila Faraiḍ al-Qulub, defines monotheism as one of the ten steps of the Spiritual Journey. Despite the similarity in their definition of monotheism, the two mystics differ in their understanding of its position and division. While Khwajah considers monotheism to be the ultimate goal of the Spiritual Journey, Ibn Paquda places it as the first gate to divine love. Furthermore, Khwajah divides monotheism into three grades based on the level of Allah seekers and considers the highest grade indescribable, whereas Ibn Paquda, under the influence of Islamic sources, emphasizes the use of three sources; reason, written texts, and Jewish traditions, and regards the highest rank of monotheism as only attainable by monotheists who combine their heart and language beliefs with reasoning. In conclusion, this study highlights the differing views of Khwajah Abd Allah al-Ansari and Baḥya Ben Joseph ibn Paquda on the position, description and division of monotheism. Both mystics provide valuable insights into the development of Islamic and Jewish mystical traditions.

This article examines the tumultuous history of Islamic studies in the West, which sheds light on current views and interactions between Westerners and Muslims. It explores the legacy of past encounters and interactions, which have shaped contemporary perspectives. The article investigates the history of Western thought about Islam from its emergence to the present, and it offers a new perspective for Persian-speaking audiences. Rather than investigating specific historical periods or geographic schools, the article aims to identify significant paradigms in Islamic studies. Five paradigms are introduced: the biblical, polemic, historical-scientific, phenomenological, and cosmopolitanism paradigms. The article highlights how each paradigm influenced the formation of the next and describes the most prominent representatives and their works. By examining these paradigms, the article provides Islamic studies researchers with new ideas and may serve as a starting point for future articles.

Studies on appearance of Fundamentalism among different religious tradition has been emphasized in recent decades. In the Christian world and Evangelical Church, fundamentalism emerged in the 1970s and advocates for a literal interpretation of the Bible in religious and social life, often conflicting with modern aspects of society. The article explores the historical background and theoretical principles of fundamentalism, and compares its methods of interpreting the Bible to previous methods. It also examines the practical consequences of a fundamentalist approach, particularly in social life, education, and mass media. The article suggests that the emphasis on the inerrancy of the Bible has led to the attribution of social views and beliefs to the sacred text, resulting in condemnation of any opposing views. This has resulted in a sacred quarrel with others, and often led to violence.