فصلنامه پژوهشهای علوم دامی ایران
سال پانزدهم شماره 2 (تابستان 1402)

One of the most important factors in the profitability of dairy farms is effective management methods in keeping and feeding infant calves. Several factors such as underdeveloped immune system and environmental stress can increase the survival power of the animal. Researchers suggest different factors can to improve the immune system of neonatal calves, including the use of fat-soluble vitamins and unsaturated fatty acids. While these vitamins play a major role in the immune system of animals, the supply of fat-soluble vitamins in the calf's diet is essential for promotion the normal growth of muscles and the skeleton of the body. Common symptoms of a deficiency in fat-soluble vitamins in neonatal calves include retardation of growth, and susceptibility to infectious diseases.

This experiment was performed in the farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Twenty-eight Holstein female calves with an average bodyweight of 37.74 kg (± 4.76) were used from birth to 56 days of age. On the fourth day, the calves were randomly assigned to one of four treatments.  All calves received colostrum for the first 3 d and then whole milk at 8% of bodyweight in the two-equal part in the morning (4.00 A.M) and evening (16 P.M) until weaning. The experimental treatments included: 1) whole milk with starter (Control), 2) control diet supplemented with flax seed oil (0.3 ml per kilogram of body weight), 3) control diet and weekly injection of 7 cc of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D3, E), 4) control diet which supplemented with flaxseed oil (0.3 ml per kilogram of body weight) plus weekly injection of 7 cc of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D3, E). Flax seed oil was mixed into milk (morning feeding) until weaning. During the experiment period, calves had ad libitum access to starter diet and water. Blood sample were harvested from jugular vein for collection of full blood for Complete Blood Count (CBC) test and blood serum metabolites. Serum was stored in -20 centigrade until further analysis. Complete blood count (CBC) test was performed to determine the number of blood cells white blood cells, red blood cells, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, granulocytes, hemoglobin and hematocrit. Serum blood metabolites, total protein, creatinine, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, albumin, liver enzymes (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase), antioxidant capacity (malondialdehyde and total antioxidant capacity) were analyzed using Alpha Classic autoanalyzer. Data were analyzed using SAS version 9.4 as a completely randomized design experiment. For all results, significant differences between treatments were declared at P≤ 0.05 and tendencies were declared at 0.05 < P≤ 0.10. Least square means for each treatment are reported in the tables and were separated using Tukey-kramer test.

The results of this study showed that the use of flaxseed oil and injection of fat-soluble vitamins during preweaning had no significant effect on the Serum concentrations of total protein, creatinine, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, malondialdehyde, total antioxidant capacity and had no significant effect on the starter feed intake, daily weight gain, rectal temperature of calves. Calves received flax seed oil and fat-soluble vitamins injection had the highest Red blood cells, White blood cells, Hematocrit, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils and hemoglobin concentration. Claves received flaxseed oil and fat-soluble vitamins injection have the highest serum cholesterol concentration (P<0.00).

The results of this study indicated that inclusion of flaxseed oil and injection of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E) had no significant effect on blood serum parameters such as total protein, creatinine, albumin, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, malondialdehyde and total antioxidant capacity, but partially improved the immune system (white blood cells, monocytes, eosinophils) and reduces liver enzymes such as aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, which indicates an increase in animal health.

Introduction : 

One of the valuable unconventional foods is whey powder, which is a by-product of cheese production. Whey powder is used as an important source of energy and protein in animal nutrition. By reviewing the composition of whey powder based on dry matter and comparing it with the needs of livestock, its nutritional value can be understood. Whey powder as a feedstuff also has properties of a prebiotic; it contains a significant amount of lactose that is not absorbed to a large extent, but is fermented and converted to lactic acid and volatile fatty acids, which may stimulate the establishment of lactobacilli in the small intestine. Whey powder in animal feed, in addition to preventing environmental problems, reduces feed costs and improves yield. Adding whey powder to this juice probably improves and increases the weight of animals fed with whey powder by stimulating the microorganisms of the digestive system and as a result, by better synthesizing the required nutrients and improving the absorption of nutrients from the digestive system. This study was conducted to determine the effect of different levels of whey powder on growth performance, fermentation parameters, ruminal morphology, degradability and microbial protein biosynthesis in fattening Zell lambs.

In the first experiment, ruminal degradability of dry matter and crude protein were measured with nylon bag technique using three fistulated Zell sheep with mean weight of about 40 kg and mean age of about 10 months. In this experiment, nylon bags made of polyester (Dacron) with a pore diameter of 45 ± 5 micrometers and dimensions of 9 ×7 cm were used. Incubation time in rumen consisted of 0, 4, 8, 16, 24, 36, 48, 72 and 96. In the second experiment, the effect of different levels of whey powder on fermentation parameters, ruminal morphology and microbial protein biosynthesis, an experiment in completely randomized design (CRD) with four diets containing zero, 1.5, 3 and 4.5 % whey powder on 24 male lambs with initial mean weight of 24± 2 kg and mean age of 4.5±0.52 months for 90 days was performed. Every day, a certain amount of feed in the form of TMR was weighed for each experimental treatment and was provided to the experimental lambs at 8 am and 5 pm. To determine the daily weight gain of the experimental lambs, weighing was done with a digital metal scale every 14 days until the end of the 90th day of the experiment. Data obtained were analyzed by statistical software SAS (version 1.9). Comparison of experimental treatment means was done using Duncan's multi-range test at a significance level of 0.05.

A significant difference was observed for final weight, dry matter consumption and daily weight gain among the experimental treatments, and the highest values ​​were found in the 4.5% whey powder treatment. Significant differences were observed in pH, ammonia nitrogen, total volatile fatty acids, and acetic acid among the experimental treatments. Specifically, the treatment with 4.5% whey powder exhibited the highest levels of fermentation parameters. Additionally, the 4.5% whey powder treatment showed the highest population of total bacteria at 2 and 4 hours after feeding, as well as the highest protozoa population at 4 hours after feeding. Moreover, the 4.5% whey powder treatment demonstrated the highest thickness, height, and density of villi compared to the other experimental treatments. Furthermore, significant differences were found in the degradability parameters of dry matter and crude protein among the experimental treatments. In particular, the soluble, degradable, and effective rumen degradability in passage rate constant parts exhibited significant differences. The amount of gas produced from the fermentable part also showed a significant difference between the experimental treatments. The control treatment showed the lowest amount of gas produced from the fermentable part, which was significantly lower than the other treatments. However, no significant difference was observed between the experimental treatments in other parameters of gas production.
The highest amount of microbial protein production was observed in the treatment of 3% whey powder.

The consumption of higher levels of whey powder at a maximum of 4.5% in the diet of fattening lambs improved the growth performance and some ruminal indices and decomposability of dry matter and crude protein.

Introduction :

 The fodder used in animal feed is in the form of silage, crushed and pellets. If used a a pelleted form, the animal will spend less time for eating so the activity and the maintenance requirements will be decrease. Part of the improvement in pellet diet is due to less energy consumption during feeding. In other words, the use of pellet rations reduces the energy consumed by the animal for eating and also increases the availability of vital nutrients and energy (Fluharty et al., 2017). Alfalfa is one of the forage plants that can produce more than two tons of protein per hectare per year. Pelleted alfalfa is a perfect feed for dairy cows, sheep and goats, horses, camels, rabbits and other livestock animals as it improves their performance and production (Fluharty et al., 2017).The activities of ruminal protozoa contribute significantly to the digestion of plant cell wall polymers and their absence from the rumen may have a negative effect on the extent of fiber digestion. Fiber-degrading enzymes include total cellulase activity, carboxymethylcellulase, and microcrystalline cellulase. The activity of these enzymes is in three separate parts of the rumen contents, including tiny particles (microbes attached to the rumen particle), intracellular part (cells that are freely suspended in the liquid part of the ruminal fluid) and extracellular part (enzymes in the liquid part) are measured (Agarwal et al., 2000). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of alfalfa physical shape and barley grain processing on nitrogen retention, activity of enzyme cellulolytic, blood parameters and rumen microbial population in Dalagh breed fattening lambs.

Thirty male lambs with an approximate age of 3.5±1.2 months with an average weight of 17 ± 1.1 kg were used. The experiment was statistically analyzed in the form of a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design with two factors. The experimental variables include: physical form of forage (chopped vs. pelleted form) and barley grain processing (whole vs. grounded vs. steam flaked). The experiment was performed in the 98 days (14 days of habituation and 84 days of the main course) with 6 treatments and 5 replications. Experimental diets were equal in protein and energy content and includes: 1- Pelleted alfalfa with whole barley grain 2- Pelleted alfalfa with ground barley grain 3- Pelleted alfalfa with flaked barley grain 4- Alfalfa with whole barley grain 5-Alfalfa with ground barley grain 6 -Alfalfa with flaked barley grain. Rumen fluid was sampled on day 84 at 3 hours after feeding and blood samples were taken from the lambs in the penultimate week of the fattening period 3 hours after morning feeding from the cervical vein.

Nitrogen consumption and fecal extracted nitrogen in lambs feces were significantly affected by the physical shape of the forage, which nitrogen consumption and fecal nitrogen excretion in lambs fed with pelleted alfalfa compared to chopped alfalfa were increased (P<0.05).  The processing of barley grain didn’t significant effect on apparent nitrogen balance parameters (P>0.05). The total number of rumen bacteria, lactic acid, coliform and rumen protozoa were not affected by the physical form of the forage (P >0.05). However, the number of total bacteria and rumen protozoa in lambs fed with flaked barley grain were higher than milled barley grain and also in milled barley grain were greater than whole barley grain (P<0.05). Activity of carboxymethyl cellulase and microcrystalline cellulase enzymes in intra cellular, extra cellular, solid and total rumen fluids of lambs fed pelleted alfalfa forage and flaked barley was higher than chopped alfalfa, however, there was no significant difference between treatments (P >0.05). The blood glucose of lambs was significantly higher in lambs fed by flaked barley than milled barley and in milled barley was higher than whole barley grain (P<0.05) The blood urea nitrogen of lambs was significantly lower in lambs fed by flaked barley than milled barley and in milled barley was lower than whole barley grain (P<0.05).

The results of our experiment showed that the use of pelleted alfalfa and flaked barley grain in the diet of fattening of lambs due to numerical increasing trend in digested nitrogen, statistical reducing of urea nitrogen and numerical increasing trend in total rumen bacteria and cellulase enzymes activity had the best performance of rumen, which ultimately ensures the health of livestock. For recommendation using pelleted form of forage and flaked barley grain for farmers is required more study to investigate rumen and post rumen digestion rate of nitrogen and also, the cost of processing. While the lamb performance increase compared to the cost of processing, it can be recommended to the farmer to instead of consuming alfalfa and barley grain as a traditional way, use the processed form of them to improve the efficiency of the use of nutrients and increase the performance of the animals.

[1]Selenium is an essential mineral for many metabolic functions of the body, including the activation of enzymes and the optimal biochemical and physiological function of birds (Antongiovanni et al., 2007). Selenium protects cell membranes from oxidative damage and can therefore improve nutrient efficiency (Arner et al., 2012). The small intestine is the most important part in the digestion and absorption of nutrients, while the large intestine and intestinal tract are very important areas for the accumulation of microbes (Chitra et al., 2013). Gastrointestinal health is one of the most important and effective factors in bird function. Gastrointestinal microbial population affects the nutrition and health of various animal species, including poultry. These microorganisms need trace elements such as selenium to perform their normal metabolic functions. Selenium may affect bacterial cells by disrupting the respiratory chain (Pappas et al., 2005). In addition to improving the quality and composition of intestinal microflora, selenium can have a positive effect on the morphology of the intestine as an antioxidant (Haghighi-khoshkhoo et al., 2010). Despite these benefits, the effect of selenium on intestinal microbial population is largely unknown, so the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different levels of organic and inorganic selenium in the diet on microbial population, intestinal morphology and intestinal acidity in laying hens.

The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with 300 laying hens of high-line strains from 23 to 35 weeks of age with 5 treatments, 6 replications and 10 hens per replication. Experimental treatments include 1- Base diet (without selenium), 2- Base diet + 0.5 mg/kg sodium-selenite, 3- Base diet + mg/kg 1 selenite-sodium, 4- Base diet + mg/kg 0.5 selenium-methionine, 5-base diet + 1 mg/kg selenium-methionine. At the end of the experiment, two birds were randomly selected from each replicate; To evaluate the microbial population, a sample of the contents of the cecum on the culture medium was used (1). Tissue samples were prepared and then measured using a microscope, villi length, villi width, crypt depth, and number of goblet cells (9). To measure acidity, samples were taken from the contents of the cecum, and acidity was measured by a pH meter.

The results indicate that consuming 1 mg/kg of selenium-methionine increased the villi area compared to the control treatment. The experimental treatments did not affect villi length, villi width, crypt depth, number of goblet cells, and the ratio of villus length to crypt depth. The consumption of 1 mg/kg of selenium-methionine significantly decreased the population of Salmonella and increased the population of Lactobacillus in the cecal compared to other experimental treatments. The consumption of 0.5 and 1 mg/kg of selenium-methionine caused a significant decrease in the population of aerobic bacteria compared to the control treatment. The acidity of cecal contents in the treatment containing 1 mg/kg of selenium-methionine was significantly reduced compared to the control treatment. Several studies (Langhout et al., 1999, Lukaszewicz et al., 2011, Pappas et al., 2005) have reported that using organic sources of selenium reduces the coliform population. In mice, dogs, and laying hens, selenium intake has been shown to increase the number of Lactobacillus and decrease Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus in the cecum (Langhout et al., 1999, Lukaszewicz et al., 2011, Pappas et al., 2005). Increasing the population of beneficial bacteria due to the provision of sufficient selenium for their synthesis is also an antioxidant property of selenium in preserving the life of these bacteria. It appears that beneficial bacteria, such as Lactobacillus, can competitively eliminate harmful bacteria such as Escherichia coli in the gut (Lukaszewicz et al., 2011). An increase in the number of pathogenic bacteria in the intestine causes the villi to shorten and the lining to shrink (Attia et al., 2010).Numerous studies demonstrate that the consumption of diets containing selenium compounds has destructive effects on harmful intestinal bacteria (Chantiratikul et al., 2008, Hashemi et al., 2012, Heindl et al., 2010, Horn et al., 2009, Langhout et al., 1999). Adding organic selenium to the diet of broilers increases the weight of the intestines due to the growth of villi and intestinal lamina propria (Haghighi-khoshkhoo et al., 2010, Heindl et al., 2010). The lack of selenium consumption on morphology can be attributed to the levels of selenium used, as well as the bird's lack of stress. Selenium can exert its effect more effectively under stress conditions. Most harmful bacteria grow in an environment with acidity close to 7 or slightly higher, while beneficial bacteria multiply in an acidic environment and compete with pathogenic bacteria (Cooke et al. 1973). An increase in acidity leads to a decrease in Escherichia coli and Salmonella in the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, the consumption of organic sources of selenium reduces the population of pathogenic microorganisms (aerobic bacteria, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella) and increases the population of Lactobacillus competitively, followed by an increase in gastrointestinal acidity. This improvement may lead to an increase in digestion, absorption, and performance (Kasaikina et al., 2011).

 According to the results of this study, it can be said that consuming organic sources of selenium (levels of one and 0.5 mg of selenium-methionine per kg of feed) significantly reduces the population of harmful aerobic bacteria, bacteria. Salmonella and Escherichia coli and cause a competitive increase in the beneficial population of Lactobacillus; The consequence of this operation is to increase the acidity of the cecum and reduce the damage and microbial destruction to the intestinal tissue, and therefore with positive changes in the morphology of the small intestine will lead to improved bird function.

During the past decades, rapeseed production, including canola varieties, has surpassed peanut, sunflower, and even cottonseed in production, and ranks second among oilseed crops worldwide. Due to its drought endurance, canola may be the preferable grain for cultivation in several locations of Iran. Canola seed (CS) is an economic feed ingredient containing well-balanced protein (19 to 22%) and a high oil content, up to 45% in some cases. Apart from the oil content of CS, its concentration of dietary fiber, glucosinolates, and tannins are of concern. Canola has less glucosinolates and erucic acid than rapeseed. It, resulting in a higher level of vital nutrients and higher nutrient density. The nutrient composition and presence of anti-nutritional factors in CS may also affect its quality and feeding value for poultry. However, the presence of some glucosinolates, erucic acid, and other undesirable compounds such as phytates, polyphenols, and soluble non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) may reduce nutrient digestibility and performance of the chickens. Heat process affects the rate of protein denaturation, starch gelatinization, digestive enzymes accessibility, bacterial counts and toxin degradation of feed. On the other hand, starch gelatinization by heat processing may increase amylase effects to break the chains of amylose and amylopectin, which in turn increases the digestibility of less digestible carbohydrates, improves metabolizable energy and digestibility of amino acids in beans, soybeans, peas and canola. Some concerns have been raised about the inclusion levels of CS in broiler diets. This experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of processing method on apparent metabolizable energy (AME), apparent metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen (AMEn), apparent dry matter digestibility (ADMD), and apparent nutrients digestibility (and) of CS (Nafis variety) in broiler chickens.
This study was designed to determine the nutrient digestibility and, AMEn value of crud and heat processed CS. The CS used in this research was of the Nafis variety, which was sourced from the Astan Quds Razavi farm, Mashhad, Iran. The obtained CS sample was divided to three equal subsamples. One part was unprocessed, second part was micronized; one hour before processing CS was moistened by 20% of the weight, and then placed in a single layer on a vibrating conveyor belt under the infrared emission source at a speed of 6.25 cm/s until the surface temperature of the grain should reach 130○C, and third part super-conditioned under humidity of 16% and temperature of 75-85○C for 3-4 minutes. A total of 48, day-old Ross 308 male broiler chicks was obtained from a commercial hatchery. Chicks were reared and housed in battery brooders in a room. From day one to 10 and 11 to 15, chicks had ad libitum access to conventional corn-soybean meal starter and grower diets, respectively, to meet the nutrient specification of the strain as recommended by Ross 308 manual. A common corn-soybean meal diet was formulated to serve as the reference diet to meet or exceed the nutrient requirements of broiler chicks as described for the Ross 308. The CS samples (row, micronized, and super-conditioning) were incorporated into the reference diet at a 40% inclusion rate (60% reference diet and 40% CS). The digestion trial included a 4-day preliminary period in 16–19d of age, followed by 4 days of recorded total feed consumption and excreta collection. The feed was provided ad libitum during the preliminary and the collection period. During the collection period (20-23d of age) total feed intake was measured, and excreta from each cage were collected twice a day, pooled, and kept frozen at -20oC until subsequent analyses. The excreta samples were oven-dried at 60○C for 72 hours to determine dry matter content. The dried excreta and diet samples were ground through 20 mesh screens, and nutrient content was determined according to (AOAC, 2000). The gross energy of the dried excreta and diet samples was measured with Bomb-calorimeter (Model 1266, PARR). The apparent nutrients digestibility, AME and AMEn of the reference and test diets were determined. Accordingly, apparent nutrients digestibility, AME and AMEn of the CS was calculated as: ”.
The average of dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, fiber, ash, and gross energy for CS were 96.20, 17.70, 46.60, 6.00, 4.11%, and 7137 kcal/kg, respectively. The apparent digestibility of dry matter, crude protein, crude fat and AMEn for raw CS in broiler chickens were 54.28±1.19%, 69.42±1.13%, 77.1±1.32%, and 4673±268 kcal/kg of dry matter. Processing of canola by micronization and super-conditioning method numerically increased the dry matter content of CS by 2.46% and 0.88%, respectively. Crude fat and crude protein content also changed with a similar trend to dry matter content. The effect of canola processing on AME and AMEn in broilers was not significantly (P> 0.05). Micronizing process of CS increased ADMD and AMEn values of 7.47% and 117 kcal/kg than non-processed seed, respectively. Super-conditioning process was less effective than micronization on improving CS nutrient digestibility and AMEn values.
The outcomes of the present study showed that spit non-significant effect of heat processing on energy value and nutrients digestibility of CS (Nafis variety) that might be due to better tolerance of chickens fed recent varieties of CS. However, the change in nutrients digestibility and AMEn values of CS with processing by super- conditioning method was poor, a trend of improving nutrient digestibility and AMEn values were seen in micronize process. More research is needed to clarify the response of the chickens when CS in the raw, micronized or conditioned forms.

Introduction : 

 Oxidative stress is an imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants at the cellular level which leads to the condition of infertility in male. Oxidation of cell macromolecules, cell death by necrosis, apoptosis and damage of tissue structure are the results of another oxidative stress damage. This process eventually leads to a variety of diseases, reduced growth performance and even death (Min et al. 2018). Poultry face a variety of environmental, technological, nutritional, and biological stresses that reduce their productivity and reproductive performance. Most of these stresses at the molecular level are associated with oxidative stress and damage to biologically important molecules (Surai et al. 2019). Qualitative characteristics of sperm, blood testosterone level, and plasma lipid peroxidation are affected by severe oxidative stress (Khan, 2011). Vitamin E is an important known antioxidant and protect cell membrane of sperm cell from damage of reactive oxygen species in male reproductive system of animal. Feeding of this vitamin has beneficial effect on testes weight, semen quality indexes, testosterone and antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase in birds and mammals. The objective of this experiment was to investigate the effect of diet vitamin E supplementation on fresh sperm quality in broiler breeder roosters challenged with oxidative-stress.

Eighteen Ross 308 male broiler breeder at 28 weeks of age were randomly assigned into 3 experimental groups including control group, dexamethasone group (subcutaneous injection of 4 mg dexamethasone per kg body weight) and dexamethasone group receiving supplemented diet with of vitamin E (200 mg per kg of feed). Each experimental group consisted of 6 birds. Sperm samples were taken from roosters using abdominal massage method and analyzed for quality characteristics and antioxidant status. Sperm concentration was determined by counting spermatpzoa using hemocytometer. The pooled sperm sample was diluted by using poultry semen extender and then 10 µl of diluted sperm mixed with 10 ml of 3% NaCl. The chambers of hemacytometer filled with 10 µl sperm suspension and allowed to settle for 3 mines.  Numbers of sperm cell in 5 of the large squares of chamber were assessed. Computer assisted semen analyses (CASA) were performed to determine sperm motility, with settings adjusted to detecting domestic fowl according to a previously described method (Froman and Feltmann, 2000). Total, progressive and non-progressive motility (%), as well as immotile sperms were measured. Also, sperm kinematic values including straight line velocity (VSL (µm/s)), curvilinear velocity (VCL (µm/s), average path velocity (VAP (µm/s), amplitude of lateral head displacement (ALH (µm), and beat-cross frequency (BCF (Hz) were measured. Progression ratios were also calculated using the mentioned velocity measurements: straightness (STR = VSL/VAP) and linearity (LIN = VSL/VCL).

The results indicate that dexamethasone-induced oxidant stress caused an increase in MDA levels (5.4) and a decrease in the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase (52.51) and superoxide dismutase (108.62), as well as sperm motility parameters and sperm cell membrane integrity in comparison to the control group. However, when vitamin E was added to the roosters' diet, it improved the negative effects of oxidative stress on sperm motility parameters, antioxidant status (Total antioxidant capacity (1.65), superoxide dismutase (155.10) and glutathione peroxidase (87.77) enzymes), sperm viability (88.05), and sperm cell membrane integrity (89.72) (P<0.05). These findings suggest that dexamethasone injection caused a sharp decline in sperm quality by reducing sperm motility, antioxidant enzyme activity, and plasma membrane integrity, while vitamin E supplementation improved sperm quality by enhancing the antioxidant status and protecting the sperm cell membrane from the damage caused by reactive oxygen species in broiler breeders. Avian sperm are highly susceptible to lipid peroxidation due to their high content of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipid peroxidation produces reactive species that damage sperm membrane function and motility, ultimately reducing the fertility potential of aged roosters. Therefore, the antioxidant defense plays a critical role in maintaining semen quality (Surai et al., 2006).

It can be concluded that the inclusion of vitamin E in diet remarkably improved the sperm motility characteristics and antioxidant status of sperm in broiler breeder roosters challenged with oxidative stress. On bases of this finding it’s recommended to use of vitamin E in the rooster diet to elucidate negative effect of oxidative stress.

Introduction: 

In order to maximize poultry production, it is important to have knowledge of the bird's requirements. This can help to increase their production capacity. Since feed is a major expense in poultry production, it is crucial to consider the main components of the feed. Energy and protein are vital nutrients for poultry. Energy is necessary for body function, while protein is an essential constituent of all tissues in the bird's body. Proteins have a significant impact on the growth performance of birds, and they are also the most expensive nutrient in broiler diets. A lot of research has been done to better utilize feed by the animal and reduce feeding costs. This is important because diets that contain excessive amounts of certain nutrients can lead to nutrient loss and increased breeding costs. The Khazak hen is a native hen of the Sistan region and is known for its small body size. Achieving better growth performance in this bird requires determining the optimal levels of energy and dietary protein in different phases of production. Since there is no information about the optimal level of energy and protein in the growth period for Khazak chickens, so this study was conducted to determine the effect of different levels of energy and protein on growth performance of Khazak native chickens and select the best combination of energy and protein levels at 7 to 91 days of age.

The research was performed on Khazak chickens in the Research Center of Domestic Animals (RCDA) in the University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran. A total of 360 seven- day- old chicks were randomly allocated to 9 dietary treatments including three levels of energy (2600, 2800 and 3000 kcal / kg) and protein (17, 19 and 21%) as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with four replications, and 10 birds in each replication. The chicks entered the experimental pen in seven days of old and they were examined with experimental diets for 12 weeks. The birds had ad libitum access to feed and water throughout the experiment. Eenvironmental conditions in terms of light, temperature and humidity were considered similar for experimental treatments. Weighing chickens and feed intake were measured weekly. Other parameters including average daily body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, daily energy and protein intake, energy and protein efficiency ratio were calculated based on the body weight and feed intake data, in three age ranges (7 to 35, 35 to 63 and 63 to 91 days of age) and the whole period. The collected data were analyzed using GLM procedure of SAS software version 9.1 and the means were compared with Tukey test at 5% level.

The study results indicate that varying energy and protein levels had a significant impact on weight gain, feed intake (except during the 63-91 day age range), feed conversion ratio, and energy and protein intake (excluding the 63-91 day age range) during all three periods studied as well as over the entire period (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the interaction between energy and protein showed a significant effect on all variables studied across all periods (P < 0.05). However, the impact of energy and protein levels on protein efficiency ratio (PER) and energy efficiency ratio (EER) was not significant. During the starter period, physical limitations may cause birds to consume less energy with low-density diets. Thus, when birds consume diets that are low in energy and protein during this period, their energy consumption declines due to these physical limitations. The study results indicate that determining optimal energy and protein levels in the diet is crucial for maximizing the performance of native chickens. To balance poultry performance and economic production, an applied feeding program that compromises between the animal's nutritional requirements and management needs is necessary. Consequently, one approach to achieving this balance is by developing a diet formulation that can regulate a specific ratio of protein to renewable energy.

Although, the many performance variables were not significant between energy levels of 3000 with 2800 kcal/kg and protein levels of 21 with 19%, but the negative effect on performance was observed by reducing energy level to 2600 kcal/kg and protein level to 17 %. So level of 2800 kcal/kg and 19% for energy and protein suggested for these ages of chickens.

Introduction: 

Feed additives are commonly used in poultry feed to enhance performance, promote health, and increase nutrient efficiency. The use of antibiotics as growth promoters in poultry feed has been prevalent for years. However, due to concerns regarding the accumulation of antibiotic residues in poultry products and the development of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains, antibiotics are no longer considered desirable additives in poultry feed. As a non-therapeutic alternative to antibiotics, probiotics have been introduced as suitable candidates to promote growth. Probiotics have beneficial effects on poultry digestive enzymes, improve intestinal absorption, and neutralize toxins produced by harmful microorganisms, ultimately improving the immune system and economic performance. Among the most popular probiotic bacteria are Lactobacilli, as they are generally classified as safe bacteria.

Materials and methods:

 Lactobacillus reuteri (L. reuteri ABRIG25 (MF686485)) and salivarius (L. salivarius NABRII59 (MH595987) isolated from the digestive tract of Guilan’s native chicks and Mazandaran’s duck  respectively, were prepared up to 1.36×109 CFU using MRS medium at 37 ° C, under anaerobic conditions. 300 one-day-old male Arbor-Acres chicks were distributed in a completely randomized design, with 5 treatments, 4 replications (15 chicks per replicate). Experimental treatments were: 1- Basic diet as control group (Cont), 2- Basic diet + 100 g / ton Avilamycin as antibiotic group (Anti), 3- Basic diet + 200 g / ton commercial probiotic (Lacto-feed®) (Plac), 4- Basic diet + 1 g / Kg of L. salivarius NABRII59 (MH595987) bacterial powder (Pls1), and 5- basic diet + 1 g / kg of L. reuteri ABRIG25 (MF686485) bacterial powder (Plr1). Daily feed intake, weight gain, and feed conversion ratio of broilers were determined and recorded in starter, grower, and finisher  periods. On day 42, two chicks were slaughtered from each replicate and the weight of internal organs and carcass cuts were recorded as a percentage of carcass weight. Chicken antibody reaction were determined using SRBS suspension. On days 22 and 35 of the rearing period, two chicks were randomly selected from each cage and 0.1 cc of  SRBC solution was injected into to the wing’s vein, intravenously. Humoral immunity test was applied on days 29 and 42, using 1 cc of blood taken from the wing vein of chickens. The hemagglutination reaction was recorded based on the last two dilutions as SRBC’s antibody using the logarithm and the antibody titer against Newcastle was determined by hem agglutination inhibition (HI) test. On day 42, blood samples were taken randomly from 2 birds per replication to evaluate blood-serum parameters including glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL, LDL and VLDL. All data were analyzed using SAS software v.9.1 (2012) in GLM procedure using a completely randomized design, and comparison of statistical means was performed, using Duncan's method at the level of 0.05.

The present study investigated the effect of native probiotic isolates (Plr1, Pls1) compared to commercial probiotics (Plac) and antibiotics (Anti) on the growth performance of chickens. The results showed no significant differences in daily feed intake, weight gain, and feed conversion ratio between experimental treatments. However, two native probiotic isolates (Plr1, Pls1), the commercial probiotic (Plac), and the antibiotic (Anti) resulted in a significant reduction (P <0.05) in proventriculus weight, while there were no significant differences in the relative weight of other organs. Both the commercial probiotic (Plac) and the native Lactobacillus isolates (Plr1 and Pls1) significantly improved total immunoglobulin and immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels after both the first and second injections (P <0.05). Lactobacillus salivarius (Pls1) isolate also significantly improved immunoglobulin M (IgM) levels after the second injection. However, there were no significant differences between treatments and the control group in terms of antibody titer against Newcastle disease vaccine, blood glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, VLDL, and LDL levels. Probiotics can affect gut microbiota by competing for nutrients and attachment sites on the intestinal epithelial cells. Additionally, they may improve blood parameters and stimulate immune system cells to produce cytokines, which play an important role in inducing and regulating immune responses in poultry. Probiotics support lactic acid-producing bacteria and stabilize the gut microflora, which has beneficial effects on feed conversion ratio by stimulating the production of digestive enzymes. Furthermore, probiotics may reduce cholesterol synthesis by fermenting indigestible carbohydrates, leading to the production of short-chain fatty acids and ultimately lowering cholesterol levels in the host bird. Discrepancies in results reported by different researchers may partly be due to differences in chick’s age and breed, level of stress, diet composition, consumption period and duration, type of commercial probiotics, dose or amount of probiotic intake, management skills, and environmental conditions in different experiments.

The general conclusion is that the probiotic isolates used in this study are competitive with the commercial type of probiotics as well as the antibiotic used and are promising as probiotic candidate with beneficial effects on broiler’s performance, blood biochemical parameters and immune system

Introduction : 

Sunflower meal is considered as an attractive alternative to soybean meal due to its adaptation to dry and temperate climates as well as its lower anti-nutrient content than other oilseeds. Sunflower meal has a limiter that restricts its use in broiler diets. The fiber in sunflower meal has limited its use in the diet of broilers due to reduced metabolic energy as well as production. Fermentation, which uses beneficial microorganisms, can reduce the chemical composition of the feed and increase the yield of broilers by producing enzymes and using fiber as a feed source. In this study, in order to investigate the effect of fermentation on sunflower meal, growth yield, microbial population composition, blood parameters in broiler chickens were performed.

The research was conducted at the research farm of Sari University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources in 2020. In this study, 200 commercial male Ross 308 broilers were used in a completely randomized design with five treatments, five replications, and eight chickens per replication. The treatments included: 1) Control diet, 2) Diet containing sunflower meal (negative control), 3) Diet containing sunflower meal fermented with Aspergillus Oryzae, 4) Diet containing sunflower meal fermented with Penicillium Funiculosum, and 5) Diet containing sunflower meal fermented with Aspergillus Oryzae and Penicillium Funiculosum. Sunflower meal was obtained from Behpak Behshahr (Mazandaran) company, ground in the animal nutrition laboratory of Sari University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, and sieved to a size of 2 mm. Aspergillus Oryzae (PTCC5010) and Penicillium Funiculosum (PTCC5301) were purchased as lyophilized vials from the Fungus and Bacteria Collection Center of the Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST). During the fermentation process, 1.1 liters of the mixture of distilled water and primer culture (containing at least 105 colony forming units per ml) was added to each kilogram of sunflower meal, and the resulting mixture was thoroughly mixed by hand for 15 minutes. The mixture was fermented in special tanks (with a one-way valve to remove the produced gases and prevent air from entering) for 7 days at 30 °C, and finally, the fermented sunflower meal was dried for three days at room temperature. All chickens were kept under the same breeding conditions during the 39-day period and had free access to feed. Experimental diets were adjusted to three periods: initial (1-10 days), growth (11-24), and final (25-39) using Table 1 of the Ross 308 Catalog of Nutritional Requirements for Broilers. The pH of fermented sunflower meal was determined using the Chiang et al. method. Sunflower meal was sampled before and after fermentation to measure dry matter, ash, crude protein by the Kjeldahl method, crude fat by Soxhlet device, and insoluble fibers in acidic detergent and neutral detergent using a fibrotec device. Total amino acid was measured by the ninhydrin method. Soluble sugar was measured by the intron method. Total phenol content was measured using the Folin-Siocalcu reagent and spectrophotometry. Soluble proteins were measured by the Bradford method.

During the fermentation of sunflower meal, pH, crude fat, soluble protein and soluble sugar decreased. The amount of crude protein, total amino acid, insoluble fiber in acidic detergent, and insoluble fiber in neutral detergent increased. In the whole breeding period, body weight gain was improved in treatments fed with fermented feed. In the treatment of Aspergillus Oryza + Penicillium funiculosum, feed consumption decreased compared to control, negative control and Penicillium funiculosum treatments. The feed conversion ratio increased in the negative control treatment at the age of 1-39 days compared to other treatments. In the ileum, coliform bacteria decreased in negative control treatments, Aspergillus Oryzae, Aspergillus Oryzae + Penicillium funiculosum compared to the control treatment, but Penicillium funiculosum treatment increased compared to other treatments. At 39 days of age, the use of fermented and raw feed increased the level of HDL-c in the negative control and Aspergillus Oryzae + Penicillium funiculosum treatments. The amount of LDL-c increased in the treatments of Aspergillus Oryzae and Penicillium funiculosum

Based on the results, the use of fermented feed in the feeding of broiler chickens during the entire breeding period has improved weight gain and feed conversion ratio.

Vitamin D3 is one of the important vitamins in calcium metabolism, which increases the active transport of calcium and phosphorus in the intestinal epithelium. However, the mechanism by which vitamin D3 increases the absorption of calcium and phosphorus is not fully understood. The active form of vitamin D3 or 1,25-hydroxycalciferol is transported to the nucleus of the intestinal cells. In the presence of 1, 25-hydroxycalciferol, a specific RNA is secreted from the cell nucleus, which is translated into a specific protein by the ribosomes, thereby increasing the uptake of calcium and phosphorus. The primary role of 1, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 in vertebrates in regulating calcium homeostasis is the direct action of 1,25-hydroxyvitamin D3 on the gut, kidneys and bones by inhibiting the production of parathyroid hormone in the parathyroid glades. Vitamin C prevents stress by preventing the release of corticosteroid hormones, which can be effective for bird function, egg production and reducing mortality. In the liver, vitamin D3 is converted into 25-hydroxycalciferol, which is later converted into calciferol hydroxylase (activated by vitamin C) in the kidneys by the enzyme 25-hydroxy molecule. This metabolite increases the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestinal wall and renal tubules. The aim of this experiment is therefore the effect of vitamin D3 and vitamin C on performance, egg quality and hatchability in broilers breeder hen at the end of the production period.

A total of 240 broiler breeder hens and 24 cockers (Ross 308) were distributed in a 2×2 factorial arrangement including two levels of vitamin D (3500 & 5500 IU) and two levels of vitamin C (0 & 150 mg/kg) with 6 replicate pens of 10 hens and one cock each. The experiment lasted for 12 weeks (from the age of 49 to 61 weeks), and during the trial, the performance traits production and hatchability were recorded. Every 28 days 4 eggs were evaluated for internal and external quality.

The results of the study showed that the main effect of vitamin D3 had a significant impact on egg weight, with higher concentrations resulting in a reduction in egg weight. However, there was no significant effect on other performance parameters. The main effect of higher concentrations of vitamin D3 was an increase in the number of hatching eggs, shell percentage, shell thickness, specific gravity of the eggs, a decrease in the percentage of egg breakage. However, this effect was not significant for other parameters. Increasing the level of 1,25 hydroxycalciferol significantly increased plasma calcium levels, which led to increased renal 1-alpha-hydroxylase activity, envelope secretion, reduced oocyte rupture, resulting in increased hatch fertility. The main effect of vitamin C significantly increased production percentage and reduced feed conversion and feed consumption per egg. However, there was no significant effect on other parameters. Addition of vitamin C significantly increased external characteristics of the eggs, including shell proportion, shell thickness, shell ash and phosphorus, number of hatching eggs, but reduced the number of broken eggs. However, there was no significant effect on internal parameters, except for yolk color. The use of vitamin C activates the enzyme 25-hydroxycholecalciferol hydroxylase to produce 1,25 hydroxycalciferol, which increases calcium absorption from the intestinal wall and reduces the number of ruptured eggs. Regarding the interaction of different levels of vitamin D3 and vitamin C, the results showed that higher levels of vitamin D3 and vitamin C increased production percentage, egg mass, number of hatching eggs, shell thickness, phosphorus and FCR. Intake in the egg removed significantly increased, but the number of broken eggs decreased.

In general, according to the results of the present experiment, it can be concluded that the use of vitamin C in an amount of 150 mg / kg with 5500 IU of vitamin D3 can increase the production percentage, increase the mass of eggs and improve the feed conversion ratio. It can also increase shell thickness and the number of chickens produced weekly and over the period, decrease the number of broken eggs, increase the number of hatching eggs, reduce feed intake per egg and feed intake per chicken at the end of the broiler breeder production period.

Lactoferrin is secreted in the apo-form from epithelial cells in most exocrine fluids, such as saliva, bile, pancreatic and gastric fluids, tears and, particularly, in milk. Lactoferrin is the most dominant protein in milk after casein. This protein plays a crucial role in many biological processes including the regulation of iron metabolism, induction and modulation of the immune system, the primary defense against microorganisms, inhibiting lipid peroxidation and presenting antimicrobial activity against various pathogens such as parasites, fungi, bacteria, and viruses. The major antimicrobial effect of lactoferrin is related to its N-terminal tail where different peptides for instance lactoferricin and lactoferrampin which are important for their antimicrobial abilities are present. cLF chimera (CLF36 peptide ) was derived from camel lactoferrin (cLF) consisting of 42 amino acids and has primary sequence of DLIWKLLVKAQEKFGRGKPSKRVKKMRRQWQACKSSHHHHHH. In addition, the results of previous study showed that cLFchimera had anti-inflammatory and regulatory activity of the immune system. Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) transcription factors regulate several important physiological processes, including inflammation and immune responses, cell growth, apoptosis, and the expression of certain viral genes. NF-kB dimers are located in the cytoplasm in an inactive form through association with any of several IkB inhibitor proteins. The phosphorylation and degradation of IkB have received great attention as key steps for the regulation of Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) complexes. Phosphorylation of the IkB by IKK signals it for ubiquitination at specific lysine residues. The aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effects of the recombinant camel Lactoferrampin-Lactoferricin on nuclear factor kappa B (NF-кB) pathway.

CLF36 peptide was prepared through a previous study in Biotechnology Laboratory of Animal Science Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (GenBank accession number: MH327768.1). Protein data for inhibitory combinations of the Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) pathway was collected from the Protein Data Bank (PDB) And UniProt.Physico-chemical properties analysis (atomic state, isoelectric point, half-life, hydrophobicity hydrophilicity , barometric and pH) was done using Expasy Prot Param online server. The inhibitory effects of this peptide was assessed by Molecular Docking Simulation (In silico). the simulation of the interaction (Docking) of CLF36 peptide with Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) signaling pathway in upstream, pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α and IL-6) and in downstream, cytoplasmic IKKB and NF-κBp65 was done using ClusPro 2.0 software online.interaction diagram created by LigPlot+ showing the hydrogen bond network and the hydrophobic interactions of CLF36 peptid with the upstream and downstream Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) pathways.

Bioinformatics analysis on The molecular interaction of this peptide with the active site of NF-κB proteins suggested that in may have role of the modulators and Anti-Inflammatory of immune processes by inhibitory effect on the TNF-α and IL-6 cytokines in upstream and IKK-β and NF-κB-p65 in downstream of the NF-κB signaling pathway. This results are similar to the inhibitory effects of Infliximab, Camelid Fab , NEMO and  GILZ on the Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) signaling pathway. Infliximab (Remicade) is a chimeric mAband its use is not very well tolerated in the majority of patients, infliximab therapy leads to the production of antibodies to infliximab in a small subset of patients. the  Camelid Fab antibody with the highest (femtomolar) potency, displays a very large surface of interaction with IL-6. the regulatory role of NEMO in the IKK complex, since a number of genetic and biochemical studies clearly demonstrate that proinflammatory IKK activation is absolutely dependent upon the presence of functional NEMO. Glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (GILZ) is a glucocorticoid responsive protein that links the nuclear factor-kappa B (NFκB) and the glucocorticoid signaling pathways. Func tional and binding studies suggest that the proline-rich region at the carboxy terminus of Glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (GILZ) binds the p65 subunit of Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) and suppresses the immunoinflammatory response.

  The results of the interaction (Docking) of CLF36 peptide with Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) signaling pathway indicates that, in upstream, will be inhibitory effect of CLF36 peptide in active site of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α and IL-6) and in downstream, cFL36 peptide will bind to protein receptors of cytoplasmic IKKB and NF-κB p65. Therefore, these findings may provide a theoretical basis for therapeutic mechanisms of CLF36 peptide.