ali ahmadi amin

  This article explores the ethics of political leaders in “Nahj al-Balagha,” a collection of sayings, letters, and sermons attributed to Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib , the first imam of the Shiites and the fourth caliph in Sunni Islam, as well as a prominent leader of the historical period of Islam. Over the centuries, “Nahj al-Balagha” has become an integral source of Muslim literature, and its content is actively studied for ethical and political lessons. This research aims to analyze the ethical principles and norms embedded in “Nahj al-Balagha,” with a focus on the role of political leaders.

 The research is conducted through qualitative analysis of the texts in “Nahj al-Balagha” using methods such as thematic analysis, content analysis, and comparative analysis. The texts are systematically examined to identify explicit and implicit ethical principles, as well as examples and scenarios related to political ethics. Contextual data is utilized for a more comprehensive understanding of the philosophy and ethics embedded in “Nahj al-Balagha.”

 It is expected that the results of this research will contribute to a deeper understanding of the ethical values that political leaders should adhere to according to “Nahj al-Balagha.” The study encompasses several key aspects, such as justice, honesty, compassion, conscience, governance, and leadership. The ethical expectations of leaders are presented in three contexts: subordinates, the general population, and their adversaries. By analyzing the texts of “Nahj al-Balagha” related to political matters and leadership, this work seeks to determine which ethical principles are deemed important for political leaders and how these principles may influence their behavior and decision-making.

Professional ethics has become an indispensable component of skills and various fields today. Disregarding ethical principles can have detrimental consequences for human society, especially when dealing with large and complex data in various branches of medical sciences. Adhering to professional ethical standards in data production and statistical analysis ensures the accuracy and validity of results derived from this data in the field of medical sciences. The primary objective of this article is to introduce and elucidate the principles of professional ethics in the analysis of medical data.

Methods and Materials:

 In this narrative review study, we delve into an examination of articles and viewpoints presented in the realm of professional ethics. This examination encompasses a comprehensive analysis of the foundations of professional ethics in medical sciences and various approaches to this matter.

Incorporating ethical considerations in the domain of statistical activities and data analysis in medical sciences holds significant importance. These actions, including the evaluation of the value and credibility of each statistical action and decision, precise modeling, and efforts to find ethical solutions to ethical challenges in this field, can contribute to the improvement and advancement of medical sciences. Therefore, attention to the principles of professional ethics in data analysis in medical sciences stands out as an essential prerequisite for enhancing credibility and scientific assurance in this domain.

Moral realism is a meta-ethical debate and is very influential in the field of ontology of moral judgments and in understanding theories. In order to distinguish between realism and non-realism, theories are distinguished in the field of value. In this article, we classify the contemporary theories regarding religious government in terms of realism and non-realism. The importance of the issue is that, firstly, the confusion of ideas such as jurisprudence and secular ideas is avoided, and secondly, the essentials of each idea are recognized from the other. Few researches have discussed the theories of theocracy from this point of view. The views regarding the government structure can be divided into three categories: realist, unrealistic and dualist. Theories such as pure contractualism are unrealistic, and theories that present a secular interpretation of religious democracy, such as the argument on the distinction between universal beliefs and personal beliefs, or the theory of Islamic democratic government, and other similar theories are dualistic. Shiite jurists, despite the difference in interpretations and differences of views in the field of religious governance, are all realists. Those who believe in absolute velayat or limited velayat, those who believe in hasbiyyah matters or non-hasbiyyah matters, those who believe based on al-faragh region or any other jurisprudential point of view have spoken based on realism. Therefore, according to the jurists' point of view, firstly, democracy has nothing to do with pure contractualism or dualism; Secondly, the rulings of Sharia are subject to real benefits and corruptions; Thirdly, God's commandments are a reliable source for understanding real values and recognizing real advantages and disadvantages; Fourth, people's opinion will be a matter of value in order to have a real effect on real materials; Fifth, the role of the individual will of the rulers or the will of the people is not the source of value, and in a sense, it is unrealism and incorrect individual and social relativism; Sixth, the evaluation criterion of all rulings, including the rulers' vote and the people's will, is a real criterion; Finally, people will be the owners of rights and obligations based on the true criteria of Mukhtar.

Robert Nozick's entitle theory of justice with the title "Justice as entitlement" is an individualistic, duty-oriented and right-oriented perspective. This view is based on the theory of natural rights. As an authoritarian thinker, Nozick presents his theory based on the above principles in three rules. He is against increasing the power of the government to the extent that it can redistribute property and assets based on certain patterns (for example, supporting the needy). This view is a reaction to Rawls's theory and any type of welfare state in the field of justice. This article examines the basics of the theory and the theory itself with a descriptive-analytical method in two parts. In addition to the basic problems, the problems in the theory include: ambiguity in the three rules, disregard for content justice, reduction of justice to the domain of ownership, incomplete explanation of ownership factors, ignoring public charity, ignoring the problems of the free market, freedom of slavery, incomplete explanation of the legitimacy of the tax, and failure to provide a solution for the withdrawal of assets from ownership.

The purpose of the present research is to study the integration legitimacy and worthiness in the theory of religious democracy and its consequences. In this regard, a descriptive-analytical method was used to present a vivid criterion to criticize the current theories and then introduce a justified viewpoint about the place of people in a religious system based on realism in the realm of values. The study also deals with characteristics of legitimacy, the value of democracy, and its requirements. The logical requirements of this theory are as follows: acceptance of critique and reformation of public will, fallibility, complementarity, constrainability, necessity to respect the limits of justice, preferability, structurability, necessity of situation research, and obligatory. Although doctrines such as divine and public legitimacy, democracy, or supporting role of people are acceptable views, they just describe people’s role and not mention the condition for substantiation of the government. Firstly, these perspectives cannot determine the value of democracy and secondly, they can not specify the worthiness of public will.

The present article aims to examine and analyze the views of Sohravardi as a representative of the Platonic tradition and Aquinas as a representative of the Aristotelian tradition regarding God’s knowledge of the creatures, and to express their points of commonality and difference; The findings of the research are that regarding the connection between divine attributes and essence, Sohravardi and Aquinas believe in identity. Regarding God’s knowledge of the creatures, both philosophers prove the knowledge of the Almighty God, but Sohravardi does not mention God’s knowledge of the creatures before creation, and Aquinas does not distinguish between before and after creation. Sohravardi does not have a significant discussion about God's knowledge of evil, but rather discusses the place of evil in the system of existence and its relationship with the goodness of the system, but Aquinas discusses more about how God knows evil and believes that Almighty God knows evil according to the system of existence. Regarding God’s knowledge of the variables, none of the two philosophers believe in change in the divine essence.

The general moral principles express universal values from which other values are derived. Many disagreements as to ethical theories have their roots in the kind of explanation given for these principles. There are six general moral principles (perfection, freedom, do-not-harm, public interests, desert, and justice) interconnected in such a way that none of them can be justified without explaining their relation to others. The principle of perfection ethically requires one to attain material and immaterial perfections. Freedom to achieve middle and final aims is defended by the principle of freedom based on principle of perfection. The limits of the principle of freedom are shown by the principle of do-not-harm. The principle of public interests helps people not to be deprived of public interests. Public interests are allocated by the principle of desert on strong grounds. Finally, harmony and balance among other principles are preserved by the principle of justice. Explaining general normative principles, this article aims to show their interconnection from an Islamic standpoint by adopting a descriptive-analytic method.

There are at least, three approaches to peace, including realism, just war theory, and pacifism. The Holy Qur’ān as the main source in Islam can be seen as a Source of peace that believes in a just war on the battlefield. Peace can be classified into positive and negative concepts. From the Quranic viewpoint, peace is applicable in both aspects. Acceptance of peace and social pluralism is a realistic principle according to the Quranic ethics. There are primarily three challenges-disability, injustice, and restriction of freedom- that have been mentioned in having peace. These challenges could be justified with the moral principles and rules of peace. This paper will deal with the general moral principles of peace from a Qur’ānic perspective using descriptive-analytical research methodology. In general, the Quranic moral principles for peace could be considered as giving priority to peace; placing justice for achieving peace; Avoiding anti-peace factors; Strengthening the agents of peace; Accepting legitimate pluralism; Empowering peace-seekers; and, Coalition for Peace.

In value sciences, ‘freedom’ refers to something which is, in itself, a human action and can be evaluated. Freedom is among the important concepts and generally among the much disputed values in value sciences, a value whose analysis would have a great impact on value arguments. The concept of freedom is among the secondary philosophical intelligibles and abstract concepts, a concept obtained through comparison. In understanding freedom, it is necessary to consider six parameters: (1) the action of the agent, (2) lack of external obstacle or reluctance, (3) preparing the necessary conditions in society or lack of emergency condition, (4) no interference in internal factors or deception, (5) preparing the necessary internal factors through education and training, and (6) accepting and considering the human destination and good fortunes in moral reasoning.

Ethical realism means that propositions tell the reality beyond taste and convention. Liberalism as a historical current encompasses different schools and theories. A study of the realist state of a view reveals the relation of that view to the possibility of value-based reasoning and knowledge. According to this study, all liberal schools, whether realistic or unrealistic, consequentialist or conservative, as well as neo-virtualist ones, as well as believers in monotheist rationalism and their opponents, in the field of spiritual, moral and hereafter charitable act unrealistically and exclude valuation from the domain of reasoning and knowledge and view it as being arbitrary. While, on the contrary, in the case of worldly charities, realists provide a realistic measure, but those other than them theoretically lend valuation to taste or convention, although all liberals in the realm of worldly charity do act realistically and base evaluation on reasoning and knowledge

In value-based knowledsge, "freedom" refers to the arbitrary action of man in leaving himself or others free. In order to determine the value of freedom, we need some principles and rules that have faced some critisims today, because firstly, these principles are based on a special perception of happiness, and secondly, they lead to the maximum denial of negative freedom. On the other hand, failure to provide ethical principles has also been criticized, because failure to comply with ethical principles leads to neglecting positive freedom. Using an analytical and argumentative method, this research explains the viewpoint of Islam in providing some principles for determining the realm of freedom, and, while committing to rationalism and realism, defends freedom in its negative and positive sense, in such a way that the negative outcomes of uncombinating these two are avoided. Consequently, indifference is rejected, and maximum intervention and prevention is avoided. Given monotheism, creation of man and the world , and considering realism and finalism in the valuation of behavior, Islam sets forth the following principles in determining the realm of freedom: the principle of servanthood, the principle of freedom, the value of meeting needs, commitment to positive freedom and the acceptance of social pluralism . In the area of modification of behavior, some principles and rules such as the necessity of fair thought, regarding people as truthful, the principle of Taghaful( preterition), and the principles of gradual elevation and tolerance are recommended.

At a glance, the liberals are divided into two groups of supporters of positive freedom and advocates of negative liberty. The principle of moral liberty, in the view of liberalism, is incompatible with some of the ethical principles of Islam such as enjoining good and forbidding evil. Therefore, the comparison between these two principles is controversial. Using an analytical method, this research seeks to study the principle of freedom with the principle of the enjoining good and forbidding evil with a comparative approach. The findings show that accepting the enjoining good and forbidding evil is preferable to the principle of freedom, not only because of the foundation of rational basis, including ethical realism, but also because it exempts from the expressed critical views on freedom.