bioterrorism

Deliberate or threatening use of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or poisonous substances prepared from living organisms to cause death or disease in humans, animals, and plants is called bioterrorism. These agents can be spread by spraying them in the air, causing infection in animals, transferring this infection to humans, or contaminating water and food sources. Defense measures, such as emergency responses to this type of terrorism, are unfamiliar and unknown. The general state of helplessness caused by the lack of complete preparation and the lack of anti-pollution strategies complicates the issue. The ability and widespread interest of civilian personnel to participate in the development of chemical and biological weapons is directly related to easy access to academic excellence around the world. Another factor is the tempting misuse of freely available electronic data and knowledge about the production of antibiotics, vaccines, and conventional weapons with their various complex details. The use of animals in laboratory research to better understand the mechanisms of disease and treatment and to overcome the limitations of clinical trials has a long history. For many viruses, laboratory diagnostic methods and reagents must be continuously modified to account for genetic variations and variants. Unlike bacterial diseases, many of which can be treated with antimicrobial drugs, there are fewer medical countermeasures to combat viral infections. Many of these pathogens are lethal or cause debilitating diseases in humans, making it ethically inappropriate to test the effectiveness of these countermeasures on human volunteers. Researchers must have a correct understanding of various animal models so that they can make the correct choice, gain a better understanding of the clinical symptoms of viral diseases, and provide possible options for treatment and vaccine development. It should be noted that decision-making when faced with a biological attack should be done away from too much fear, and this requires researchers to have prior knowledge of facing these threats. Despite all these checks and measures taken in advance, the international preparedness against these attacks is weak, which can be attributed to the lack of global plans to deal with the epidemic.

The consequences of biological attacks are disruption of social and economic activities, disruption of governments' authority, and disruption of their military responses.

The purpose of this study is to systematically review the studies conducted on the origin of Covid-19 disease and the possibility of bioterrorism of Covid-19 pandemic.

The present study is a systematic review study conducted in 2022. International databases included PubMed, Scopus, Web of science and Google scholar, and Iran's national databases included the Scientific Database (Sid) and Magiran. In total, 90 articles were retrieved. Finally, 11 articles were included in the study and their results were analyzed.

From the beginning of the outbreak of Covid-19 disease in China and then around the world, many analyzes have been published about its biological nature, that the coronavirus is a biological war and an example of bioterrorism. The results of the review of the articles found in this research showed that most of the studies (50%) emphasize that the spread of the corona virus is not bioterrorism and is not intentional. Only 30% of the articles have mentioned the bioterrorism of the Covid-19 pandemic, and 20% of the studies have expressed doubts in this regard.

The world needs a thoughtful and guided approach to biosafety research to meet the challenges of the 21st century. Awareness of the authorities and the public about the causes of bioterrorism and their rapid detection can be very important in preventing these incidents.

Gene editing as a molecular knife has provided a powerful tool to edit the genome inside living organisms’ bodies. Despite all the benefits, this technology has many biosecurity concerns that have prompted the international community to develop specific implementation guidelines. This study aimed to investigate the risks of gene editing technology from the point of view of biosecurity and to determine its defense strategies.

This review was conducted in the fall and winter of 2022-23. The study’s method was based on the observation and interpretation of the data obtained from relevant scientific articles and books. Scientific books and articles were searched by searching the keywords Germline Gene Editing, CRISPR, Biosecurity, CRISPR War, Biohacking, CRISPR babies, Do It Yourself, Islamic Bioethics in PubMed, Scopus, Researchgate databases and also the Google search engine was searched and checked in English .

The advent of genome editing technology has created a new paradigm in which the human genome sequence can be precisely manipulated to achieve a therapeutic effect. However, embryo editing and the design of programmed humans (super-humans) are considered one of the challenges and risks of gene editing biosecurity. Also, this technology is mentioned as a dangerous tool for biohacking and bioterrorism in the design of personalized bioweapons and emerging agents.

CRISPR-based bioweapons have destroyed the logical and strategic balance of power that has kept the world immune from using weapons of mass destruction. The world is facing a potentially more dangerous technology than nuclear weapons. As a result, establishing appropriate international and ethical laws is necessary to prevent the potential dangers of this technology and to deal with it.

Telehealth is one of the technologies that can help us in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases caused by bioterrorism. This research aims to introduce the applications of this tool and examine its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in bioterrorist attacks.

We searched in Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar from 2001 to 2021. By applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria and checking the title, abstract, and full text, we selected articles to enter the analysis. Finally, we extracted and saved data based on the Excel form.

A total of articles were retrieved through the search, and 15 studies remained for final analysis. Based on the findings, we categorized telehealth applications into four general categories. Tele-consultation, e-learning, tele-prevention, tele-monitoring, and tele-diagnosis were the most common applications. Also, SWOT analysis showed that practical tools in bioterrorism have more strengths than weaknesses. Early identification of bioterrorism attacks and control of their spread is one of the significant strengths of this field. Also, one of its considerable weaknesses is the incompatibility of these systems.

Considering the many applications of telehealth and the positive impact of this tool during bioterrorism incidents, its use is suggested by various organizations, especially the Red Crescent and military organizations. But considering the weaknesses and threats like the lack of appropriate technical, organizational, legal, and insurance infrastructure and security and confidentiality issues, it is necessary to measure to deal with these cases.

The aim of this study was the evaluate using of techniques LIBS (laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy) to detect biological agents in bioterrorism threat. Remote and real-time identification of biological agents is now one of the key needs for defense and security dimensions in the world.

In this study, has been used a descriptive method that after collecting the literature and the internet search.

LIBS technique based on laser-induced plasma spectroscopy can lead to determining of amount various elements in the microorganisms. In this method, in place of laser focus was evaporate a small amount of the target surface and on the impacts of successive molecules in the vapor phase, was break the molecular bonds which the atoms and ions excited were create laser induced plasmas.

Detection of bioterrorism threats by means of light and simple at the online and distant is very important. According to the results of the research showed that LIBS technique is used to detect bioterrorism threats and its utilizations is being rapidly developed for the detection of biological agents.

Lack of preparedness in face of bioterrorism incidents can lead to injury thousands of people and deplete medical and health resources, especially military medical centers. Nurses, as the largest group of health care providers, play an important role in this regard, so preparing for bioterrorism for nurses and nursing students is an impossible necessity. Education is an important part of the preparation process. Due to the importance of this issue, in this study, we will Investigating educational approaches of preparedness of nurses and nursing students in face of bioterrorism incidents in Iran.

This research is a review study by searching for keywords: education, bioterrorism, nurses, nursing students and Iran, in library resources, dissertations and articles published in internet databases: SID, Google Scholar, Magiran and Irandoc from 2008 to 2020.

Few studies have been conducted in the field of educational approaches of preparedness of nurses and nursing students in face of bioterrorism incidents in Iran and the most educational approach used in these studies is lecture.

According to the results of this study, it is suggested that nursing officials, especially in military hospitals and nursing faculties should consider and implement comprehensive planning about using and testing of new and active medical educational approaches to increase the level of knowledge, attitude and practice of nurses and nursing students for managing medical complications of potential bioterrorism hazards.

Bioterrorism is an important health and social issue in the world. This research was conducted with the aim of determining the knowledge and attitude of students regarding bioterrorism in a military medical science university.

This cross-sectional study was conducted in 2021. The study population included all students studying at a university of military medical sciences in Tehran, Iran. A sample size of 300 students was calculated and demographic data were recorded. The data collection tool was the standard questionnaire of students' knowledge and attitude regarding bioterrorism.

The mean and standard deviation of students' knowledge and attitude scores regarding bioterrorism were 8.15±2.11 and 12.35±2.35, respectively. Low knowledge and attitude were reported in 63 and 72 percent of students, respectively. The mean score in the domain of decontamination and maintenance of bioterrorism victims was 3.56 and in the domain of factors causing bioterrorism was 1.25. The most important sources of students' information about bioterrorism were radio and television, followed by newspapers and magazines.

Low knowledge in students about bioterrorism can increase the probability of risks related to bioterrorist attacks. Therefore, educational programs and workshops about bioterrorism for students can be effective in increasing the level of students' knowledge and attitude.

Bioterrorism is an important health issue worldwide and physicians play an important role in managing victims when such events occur. Therefore, the present study was conducted to determine the knowledge, attitude, practice and organizational readiness of physicians in dealing with bioterrorism attacks.

The present cross-sectional study was conducted among all 50 physicians working in Shemiranat health center in 2020. A researcher-made questionnaire including five sections: demographics, knowledge, attitude, performance, and organizational readiness was used. The validity of questionnaire was confirmed by faculty members of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences and its reliability was assessed through Cronbach's alpha test in four areas of knowledge, attitude, performance and organizational readiness. SPSS software version 21 was used for data analysis. Ethical considerations were observed in all stages of the study.

Knowledge of physicians in our study was desirable (94%) (the highest share: scope and nature of bioterrorism 70%). Most physicians showed a good and excellent attitude in dealing with bioterrorism attacks (maximum share: emotional domain 96%), and 94% of them reported good performance and at the same time found the necessary platform to deal with bioterrorism attacks. There was a statistically significant relationship between service performance (p= 0.031) and organizational readiness with age (p= 0.001).

The results of this study can be helpful in managing health managers in educational interventions in order to promote participation, performance and integration of frontline forces against bioterrorism in the community.

Bioterrorism is the deliberate release of highly pathogenic biological agents including a variety of microorganisms or biological toxins that kill a large number of people. By training self-care programs about bioterrorism, the severe effects and consequences of bioterrorism actions can be reduced to some extent. The present study outlines the importance and role of self-care programs in bioterrorism attacks.

In this review, published papers related to self-care programs in bioterrorism attacks were searched in the library resources and databases of Google, SID, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Civilica and the CDC website from 2015 to 2020. Keywords of microbial agents, bioterrorism, biological warfare, self-care and self-rescue, bioluminescence, nanosensor and detector and training were used. The retrieved papers were critically reviewed and evaluated in line with the objectives of the study.

A total of 186 papers were found in the search. After excluding the papers without full text, 91 articles remained. In the screening stage, 34 papers were removed due to the non-relevance of the title and abstracts. Then 23 papers were removed due to invalid methodology, inconsistency of title and text, and finally, 34 papers were critically evaluated.

Considering the effective role of training in self-care programs to deal with bioterrorism agents; it is recommended that in addition to the national media, these programs be included in the curriculum of all academic disciplines

Today, with the anarchic situation ruling the international system, in which official (governments) and unofficial actors (such as terrorist groups, etc.) based on the principle of self-help seek to weaken other political competitors in the form of their own interests, in unofficial groups such as terrorist groups for Special intentions take any actions, this approach is sometimes in the form of hidden interaction of official actors with unofficial actors, which is a very dangerous form for world peace and security, sometimes unofficial actors take direct action against international security, based on possible assumptions about bioterrorism. Covid-19 threatens the use of biological attacks by terrorist groups in the future as a potential threat to the contemporary world. The frontline of fighting against these threats is the medical and health system.

This research has been investigated with a descriptive-analytical approach and documentary method referring to library and internet sources.

Ethical Considerations:

 In the current research, the ethical aspects of library study, including the authenticity of texts, honesty and trustworthiness, have been observed.

Considering the assumptions that exist around the new coronavirus or the Wuhan virus, which have been raised in scientific and political circles based on a series of positive evidences, it is required that countries in the field of medical and health systems based on the principle of self-help and survival in such environment to have the necessary preparations to deal with such biological attacks.

Non-medical defense approaches in biological attacks, which are manifested today in the form of acute respiratory diseases, should act as the front line in the war mode and the defense fire line. May it be explained.

In recent years, the widespread spread of the corona virus has had many legal, economic and cultural effects. As for these effects and the emergence of legal challenges arising from this, the current study entitled The approach of criminal law systems to the corona phenomenon as bioterrorism, based on library studies using a descriptive-analytical method and a comparative look at the possibility Measuring the prosecution and punishment of perpetrators of the spread or transmission of the corona virus from the perspective of the penal system of Iran and several other countries, as well as the international penal system.

This research is of theoretical type and the research method is descriptive-analytical and the method of data collection is library and has been done by referring to documents, books and articles.

In order to organize this research, while observing the authenticity of the texts, honesty and fidelity have been observed.

The findings of this study indicate that the corona virus has the potential to be used as a biological agent and as a tool to commit international crimes. In this case, from the perspective of the international criminal justice system, it will be possible to prosecute and punish the perpetrator in accordance with the provisions of the Statute of the International Criminal Court.

In some criminal systems, according to the law, the intentional spread and transmission of the corona virus can be an example of bioterrorism. However, in the Iranian criminal system, according to Article 286 of the Islamic Penal Code (1392), only the issuance of a corona (and not a transfer), on a large scale and with a specific Sunni, can be an example of bioterrorism. This legislative approach in the Iranian judicial system has limited the prosecution and punishment of perpetrators of the spread and transmission of deadly infectious viruses; therefore, at present, these persons can be prosecuted and punished mainly in the form of crimes against persons (according to the case of premeditated murder, unintentional murder and causing unintentional bodily harm.Please cite this article as:Ebrahimi M, Taheri Bojd MA, Chahkandinejad A. The Approach of Criminal Law Systems to the Corona Phenomenon as Bioterrorism. Medical Law Journal. 2022; 16(57): e50.

Bioterrorism by violent or identity-based non-governmental actors is a very probable and significant issue in the age of post-Austrian international relations that may be actively or passively supported by governments. Although the tendency of rogue states to use biological weapons remains a concern today, a newer and perhaps more important issue is the ability of non-state actors to develop and use these weapons with or without government assistance. Due to the easier access of bioterrorists to pathogens and biological weapons, the risks of bioterrorist attacks by them are quite predictable, which has created many challenges and questions in the legal field. This article tries to examine the global reactions to this phenomenon, which is one of the most important responsibilities of the international community, by raising the existing ambiguities in this regard. In this regard, this article evaluates UN Security Council Resolution 1540 as one of the most important international legal mechanisms to combat this type of bioterrorism.

This research has been prepared by descriptive-analytical method and its data collection has been done by documentary-library tools.

In all stages of writing the present study, while respecting the originality of the texts, honesty and trustworthiness have been observed.

Identifying the perpetrators of crimes against humanity is very necessary to find the best protection measures against these crimes.

In the biological field, balancing scientific progress with its destructive use is one of the great challenges to be aware of. The drafters of Security Council Resolution 1540 sought to reach an international agreement aimed at mitigating the security risks of non-state actors worldwide.Please cite this article as:Shamse Natery ME, Asadi Saghandi S. Countering Bioterrorism by Non-State Actors with Emphasis on UN Security Council Resolution 1540. Medical Law Journal. 2022; 16(57): e32.

Effective training of nursing students against bioterrorist attacks is one of the essential issues with a significant impact on their preparedness as the largest and most important group of health care providers.

The present study aimed to determine the effect of gaming-based education-themed escape room on the readiness of Aja nursing students in the face of bioterrorism.

This interventional and quasi-experimental study was performed on 61 Aja undergraduate nursing students in 2020 and 2021. Participants were selected by the convenience sampling method and non-randomly divided into lecture and groups. The training was evaluated after the intervention. The instrument included a researcher-made questionnaire including knowledge measurement, attitude and skill evaluation checklist with validity and reliability. Data were analyzed with SPSS 22 using descriptive and inferential tests. P-value less than 0.05 was significant.

Results show no significant difference between the knowledge, attitude, and skill in the preparedness of the two groups before the intervention (P<0.05). However, after the intervention, these variables in educational escape room game group were significantly higher than that in the lecture group (P<0.05).
Discussion and

Undergraduate nursing students in the gaming-based education-themed escape room group were more prepared than the lecture group. As a result, this new educational method can better prepare nursing students and nurses against bioterrorism.