Economic challenges in agriculture in the lands of the Eastern Islamic Caliphate (Study example: 3rd and 4th lunar centuries)

Agricultural land has been one of the most basic sources of income for governments, and the rulers, realizing its importance, invested in agricultural land. Considering the important share of agricultural land income in the economy of governments, the present research answers the question of what were the economic challenging factors in agriculture in the third and fourth lunar centuries in the lands of the Islamic Eastern Caliphate. This research answers the question by using descriptive-analytical approach and referring to library sources. The hypothesis of the research is based on the fact that the lack of proper management of the rulers along with some environmental factors has created challenges for agriculture in these centuries. The findings of the research show that factors such as insecurity, multiple changes of land ownership, the expansion of feudal lands and the reduction of peasants' power, the absence of an efficient tax system and collection of tribute, the influence of rulers' policies and some environmental factors, such as earthquakes, are among the important challenging factors for agriculture in the lands of the Eastern Islamic Caliphate in the third and fourth lunar centuries.