مجله مطالعات حقوق تطبیقی
سال یازدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 22، پاییز و زمستان 1399)

For centuries, women are subject to many oppressions and abusesAnd the thought of defending women's rights in the international community has emerged in the less than a century.  One of the rights that created a serious development in the field of women's rights, there is the right to recognition before the law (Right to Legal Personality) that denied beliefs that considered women a second-rate. This right, which guarantees equal legal recognition between men and women, has a special proximity to women's rights to equality. Thus, although difference treatment in both of the international law and Islamic thought, does not necessarily violate equality. But, due to fundamental differences between international human rights and Islamic law. In the field of recognizing the equal rights between women and men, in practice is not similar function.Therefore, the present article seeks to examine the subject based on a descriptive and exploratory approach whit citing to the credible Islamic sources and interpretations, as well as international law documents and procedures.

The State's diplomatic protection for its national against another State of nationality is the most challenging issue in international law which most recently highlighted by the announcement of the UK for diplomatic protection for Ms. Nazanin Zaghari who is an Iranian-British dual national. Although the non-responsibility of the State of nationality has been frequently taken into account in such situations in traditional international law, it is now possible to have diplomatic protection against another State of nationality by a State that a multiple nationality has its dominant and effective nationality. Regardless of Ms. Zaghari's dominant nationality, UK's practice in its national and international activities shows that it does not believe to do diplomatic protection against another State of nationality, except in cases where the latter consider him British. Therefore, the UK may be affected by its practice. The UK may resort to the International Court of Justice by reference to the optional protocol attached to the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963) and alleging the violation of Article 36(1) of the Convention by Iran. However, Ms. Zaghari's release, which the UK is seeking, will not be a direct result of this resort.

Maritime trading transport is the area with the highest volume of cargo handling in the world and it plays a vital role in all aspects of the prosperity of human life. On the other hand, the marine life is associated with the security of two-thirds of the sphere of the world, the environment of seas, which is threatened by the maritime transport. The main question of this paper arises from this duality: the legal system must protect a program which supports maritime trading transport or a process which is called continuing the security of marine life? Maritime trading transport as a program with a background and designed by humans is based on the elements of subject (commodity), tools (ship), bed (sea) and agent (carrier) to move cargo and each has a separate legal system. But the combination of these elements has led to a threat to a process, the natural formation of marine life and its continuation. The optimal legal system is based on criterion about the program and is supportive about the process. Therefore, the present article, which has been reviewed using library and internet references by description and analysis method, seeks through a comparative approach between the Iranian legal system and the legal system of U.S.A, as well as the international legal order to show how a legal system has adopted a lucrative approach toward maritime trading transport and has not differential or special legal system for protection in the face of anti-security threats of marine life, of which pollution is the most prominent. The result of this article is the provision of a supportive legal system with four types of enforcement guarantees: preventive, security, criminal and compensatory so that a balance between the program of maritime trading transport and the process of the marine life can be constituted; especially since geographical location of Iran requires the provision of such a system.

The problem of the position of comparative law in the judgments of the constitutional courts in the Common law and Civil law countries is a very interesting research topic since each of these bodies has a different view on the issue. In other words, the different opinions on the subject show well how constitutional judges consider the effects and characteristics of the citation of foreign norms in their decisions. In this article based on the descriptive and deductive method, we will try to answer the following question: what are the strengths and weaknesses of citing foreign norms in the judgments of the national Constitutional courts? After the presentation of the data, we will demonstrate that despite some weaknesses such as dangers for State sovereignty and the widening of the sources of law, thanks to the caution of the Constitutional judges and the citation of norms of legal systems which are close from a geographical and cultural point of view and to the use of comparison not exclusively for applying foreign law, the use of judicial and legal sources from other countries can help the development of domestic law and expand the protection of fundamental rights.

Despite the enormous volume of ongoing cases in the judiciary and the recent year's technological developments, empirical studies and credible understanding of the court's adjudication faces with a destructive rupture whose consequences cannot be ignored. This ambiguity has also left important questions unanswered in intellectual property rights and trademarks field. Innovative methods were required to overcome this problem and methodologically, the quality quantifying of the data employed, to enable large-scale analysis. We attempted to extract and process various components of court decisions by designing a database and using data mining techniques, and applying statistic models to produce an enhanced analysis of court procedures from a macro perspective. In this study, the analytical method was utilized based on the use of data available in the Research Center of the Judiciary. Although the less than expected data frequency caused some restrictions on our statistic models, extracting a broad range of variables and components from the cases allowed us to provide some of the findings and enlightening results in the form of descriptive and inferential statistics. It provides, of course, a more thorough understanding of the court proceedings status. It is worth mentioning that the key purpose was to introduce and study the innovative method, which for the first time in the country made it possible to analyze macro-judicial cases in this research as well as in future works. We started with limited questions, but have surprised by the numerous angles that could be analyzed from extracted data .The procedure of the courts is not the same in relation to various issues and variables, more comprehensive and multidimensional analysis was required which has demonstrated in the text.

Competition rules apply to maintain market competition, and competition authorities are responsible for implementing competition laws and regulations and preventing the undertakings from anti-competitive practices; However, alongside Competition authorities, in certain areas, mainly when markets face monopoly or intense concentration, lawmakers set up sector regulators to monitor the monopolies. In some countries, regulatory bodies are partly in line with competition authorities, but in some legal systems, they perform differently and sometimes are in conflict; On occasions, sector regulators consider an obstacle to the implementation of competition laws. Examining the powers, duties, and objectives of sector regulators and competition authorities, and how they operate in different countries, presents a variety of situations from conflict to interaction. In this article, this issue has been studied in different legal systems using a comparative approach. Finally, the Iranian Legal system's viewpoint has been discussed, reviewing the latest developments in the laws and regulations and the most critical cases of dispute between the Competition Council and the regulatory sector (telecommunications, pharmacies, Bar Associations, and car pricing), using a descriptive-analytical method.

Most legal experts believe that contract brings about obligation and for this reason, as long as the contract is valid the parties are required to follow its content. Contrary to the aforementioned view, the study of contracts in Iranian law shows that some contracts (e.g. representation) are not associated with certain obligations rather they are just a token of one’s right to represent someone. Nevertheless, one cannot deny that such contracts as representation, endowment or reward are considered to be binding under a number of conditions. The main challenge of the present essay is identification of the source of bindingness of some contract and the analysis of the type of obligation resulted from the contract. The authors after the comparative evaluation of the extensions of the obligation in Iranian and British laws have concluded that the inclusion of the price in the contract leads to the emergence of obligation of the conclusion and creation of normal confidence on behalf of the parties leads to the obligation of the means for another party. Acceptance of the theories of price and normal confidence in Iranian law will lead to the emergence of a new basis for the bindingness of the contracts and also the creation of a barrier for prevention from the right. In addition to the above results, distinguishing between the obligations of the result and the obligations of the means will be useful in the mechanism of the demonstration of the violation of the contractual obligations.

This paper examines the legitimacy of the unilateral separation of the Crimea from Ukraine in accordance with public international law, with respect to the right to self-determination and the right to remadial secession. It is examined in detail that, beyond decolonization, the right to self-determination does not include a general right to external self-determination. In non-colonial situations, there are two theories of unilateral secession and remedial secession. By examining the Crimea case in the light of each the cases, we conclude that unilateral secession is generally permitted under international law, but the unilateral secession of Crimea from Ukraine is an exception and prohibited under international law. Because it is the result os Russian military intervention in the peninsula and a sort of widespread violation of international law. On the other hand, by examining the practices of gevernments and judicial and semi-judicial bodies, we find that remedial secession is not yet a part of customary international law and the doctrine is also cntroversial. Assuming Crimea cannot be cinsidered a viable secession due to the diversity of the peninsula population and lack of “people” and lack of evidence of human rights violations or organized discriminatory behavior by Ukrainian authorities.

In contractual relationships, accurate and timely implementation of obligations is of particular importance. But sometimes the obligor commits a breach of contract and, in spite of the issuance of the court judgment for specific performance, he still refuses to carry out obligation. Subject to the provisions of Articles 222, 238 of the Civil Code and Article 47 of the Code of the Execution of Civil Judgments, where the obligation is enforceable by a person other than the obligor, the third party may perform the obligation or even the obligee himself fulfill the obligation and claim for the cost of such performance. Also in Article 1222 of the French New Civil Code, which replaced the former Article 1144, such a performance has been recognized. A comparative study of the issue can provide an accurate response to some questions which has been raised in the issue. Third - party involvement in the implementation of obligation is only conceivable in the obligations to do and not to do which has no personal aspect. A comparative study of French law, that inspired the drafters of Iranian Civil Code, shows that such performance by a third party is a kind of specific performance and the discharging of original obligor is its main effect which consequently all of the guarantees will be extinguished, meanwhile the obligor will be condemned to pay expenses of performance.

In spite of some instances in which statute or contract specifically determines the approach by which the standard of care is to be tested, the notion of Reasonable Man which plays a crucial role at the heart of Duty of Care is an ambiguous and abstruse issue. The Article sets forth an answer to the following question: Should reasonableness be a normative or a positive notion? In other words, should the reasonable person be defined in accordance with a normative ethical commitment or in accordance with an empirically observed practice or perception? We put forward and defend the thesis that positive approach is illogical and normative approach, namely Economic Welfare approach, is categorically sound, although the latter raises partially surmountable practical problems. This Article is basically founded on Documentary Research and Literature Review and is presented in two parts; The first involves dealing with the positive approach and the latter with the normative one.

In different legal systems, nominal, punitive and compensatory damages have been identified according to the principles of civil liability. In reviewing the Iranian legal system, it is clear that the most attention has been paid to compensatory damages, i.e. compensation for damages and restoration of the former situation. As such, it has been dealt with reluctantly and limitedly in its acceptance of immaterial damages as a form of punitive damages, and the way and means of determining it has not been anticipated. Whereas one of the most important types of damages resulting from physical injury is immaterial damages, including pain and suffering, which itself can be divided into different branches. In fact, the term suffering is used not only for physical pain but also for a range of intangible injuries such as fear, anxiety, sadness, and disrespect. In American law, the scope of payment for pain and suffering is varied, and most of these cases have been considered but there is no consistency in the assessment method, and It has used various methods such as determining the lump sum, determining the cap or ceiling on the amounts awarded, per diem calculations etc., and in most cases, the severity of the damage is one of the main components and the method of compensation is financially provided. Regarding the acceptance of immaterial damages in Iran legal system, research has been done in this field, but in particular, the damage of pain and suffering has not been addressed. This article examines the US legal system and its calculation methods to obtain and predict the legal tools for removing this gap in the Iran legal system.

Adoption is a legal institution by which a child with no family is placed under the care and support of a family. In this regard, the adopters (or the single adopter) carry all responsibilities of the natural parents towards the child, and a parent-child-relationship will be created between them. Freedom of marriage is one of the fundamental principles of human rights. Nevertheless, today, the prohibition of consanguineous marriage is also a universal principle. In some societies, religions and various legal systems, there are, in respect of different kinship hierarchies, prohibited kinship degrees with whom a matrimonial relationship is forbidden. The “Law on the Protection of Children without a Guardian or with an Unworthy Guardian”, which was passed 2013, prohibits marriage between adopters adoptees during the custody period and thereafter, but allows it if the competent court finds out that the best interest of the child so requires. In the absence of an Islamic legal prohibition, there have been cases of marriage with an adoptee. This kind of marriage is now, at least, dependent on court’s permission based on the best interests of the child. On the other hand, it is forbidden for adopters to marry the adoptee in England and Germany, two countries whose laws are going to be analyzed in this study. In this regard, this article seeks to explain the legal status of three countries, i.e. Iran, England, and Germany, with a focus on the principle of the best interest of the child and the freedom of marriage. Although the conditional ban on marriage in Iran's legal system and its prohibition in two other countries indicate a common concern of the Iranian legislature with the above mentioned countries, it seems that the principle of freedom of marriage continues to be of particular importance and, therefore, has its impact on this ban.

By using of “dehumanization” (and its more recent versions) as well as “enemy hypothesing”, this paper aims to analyze the death of people who were deprived of their liberty in environments such as custody and prison. The main focus of the article is that which type of prisoners based on their charge or conviction are more vulnerable to the death in custody. To answer the question that which groups of accused or convicts are more vulnerable to the death in custody, by referencing mentioned theories and using case study, current paper tries to analyze 30 cases of death in custodies/prisons of Iran between 2004-2019. Findings of this article show us that all the prisoners are Not vulnerable to death in custody in equal proportions. Mostly, these are accused & convicts who exposure the death in custody that are deeply in conflict with some non-negligible values of criminal systems. Analysis of 30 cases of death in custodies of Iran show that in 21 cases reason of arrest or conviction are related to Security charges. The High number of security accused or convicts in the death in custodies statistics may reinforce this hypothesis that in the eyes of criminal justice’s authorities, such group of prisoners in the process of dehumanization was considered as enemy.

The payment of hire from the charterers to the ship owners is considered as a principle in charterparties. Charterers' obligation to pay the hire is an absolute one, and in only exceptional cases, they are entitled to deduct from hire or set off against it. Therefore, the charters include some terms in time or voyage charterparties to permit them to adjust this obligation in certain circumstances. For avoiding the legal consequences, however, the charterers who need to apply this contractual right, must examine the contract attentively. Since the charterparty is sometimes silent on these terms, the question of what sources of law can be used by courts should be discussed. With a descriptive and analytical method and from a comparative perspective, this paper aims to scrutinize the charterers' obligation to pay the hire in charterparties on carriage of goods. The result is that Iranian law on this subject matter differs significantly from the common-law system; including deduction from hire for the ship off-hire period, collapsed ship, and delay in delivery of ship to the charterer. Furthermore, this is the charterparty that must be considered as the primary source of and the basis for regulating the relations between the parties. When charterparty is silent, we should refer to Iranian Maritime Law or other legal provisions as general law. Iranian Maritime Law in its ninth chapter includes scattered articles concerning charterparties, and in some cases such a right is granted to the charterers.

The urgent need to updated provisions in Iranian commercial law necessitates resorting comparative law achievements as a scientific and realistic solution. Despite this point resort to mentioned solution requires many requirements in order to obtain acceptable conclusions in the field of accession of international commercial provisions in the Iranian law. Thus, we want to study these requirements and priorities in accordance with legal and economic structure of Iranian law. In the other hand, objective diversity of required provisions in the Iranian law necessitates recognition of these requirements and shortages in domestic law and their solutions. In current research, we try to exercise these requirements and solutions upon inferential analytical approach. Furthermore, we try to demonstrate and analyze this presumption that updating commercial provisions should be done continuously and in consistent with economic and political structure and new evolutions of international trade without mere imitation of abroad provisions.

The infinity of renewable energy and its role in providing and ameliorating environmental affairs are but some of the principal rationales behind increasing the investment in the renewable energies. The promotion of investment and costly technology in this industry calls for government subsidies. In spite of the felt necessity of the mentioned measures, the WTO legal system has recognized them as actionable and even sometimes prohibited these subsidies on renewable energy, which indeed have been a major step in the local development and promotion of this industry. As a consequence of such policies, the cases and claimes of Japan and EU against Canada as well as USA against India have been proposed as dispute settlement body. The present study, through the analysis of WTO regulations, is aimed at recognizing the most pivotal challenges of renewable energy subsides; by explicating the structure and policies of the EU regulations, it is also aimed at answering this question: are the EU regulations are harmonious enough with renewable energy to be resorted to for resolving the WTO challenges? Based on the results of the present study, with the inspiration from EU expedient regulations and by putting an end to the win-win relationship between the environmental policies and international trade laws, WTO shall deem the renewable energy subsides under coverage of non-actionable and non-prohibited subsides. It shall do so, however, not unconditionally but by accounting for some specific and tangible criteria. Furthermore, WTO should prevent the deviations of the subsidies by utilizing the balance and proportion testing methods.

Following the victory of the constitutionalism movement in the 18th century and the formation of constitutional political systems, gradually democratic constitutions enacted, as a kind of state statute and the document of legal legitimacy to obtain and transfer political power, guarantee and protect human rights. However, the later challenge was the continuity of validity and the possibility of modifying and changing the constitution. Despite the primary recognition of this right for citizens and the possibility of changing the constitution (instead of the right to revolt), in many current constitutions, certain rules were excluded from the possibility of revision. The main challenge has been the possibility or impossibility of amending the foundations of the constitution and the legal effect of the limitations of revision. Some countries have not considered any restrictions on the revision of the Constitution, while others have contained restrictions for the protection of the fundamental rights and freedoms, especially on their political participation in power (the prohibition of the deformation of the republic). As an intermediate solution, in some other countries the possibility of a general revision of the constitution, or a revision of the restrictions, is provided in the constitution by an independent and special procedure. Concerning the supervision of the revision, except for a few countries, this is not explicitly provided in the constitutions. However, about the revision's procedure, in most countries, the constitutional judg emphasized considering the formal conditions of the revision. In any case, it seems, the legal or practical impossibility of amending the constitution, in whole or in part, could be considered as a kind of invitation to change the political system by other means.