نشریه مطالعات باستان شناسی دوران اسلامی
پیاپی 1 (بهار و تابستان 1401)

Historical and Cultural Landscape of Narmashir in Kerman during the Islamic Period IntroductionThe routes of the center of the Iranian plateau to Hormoz, Oman, Sistan, and India passed through Kerman along the Lut desert during the Islamic era. Narmashir plain is located on these routes. The settlements were developed in this plain due to this special location. Furthermore, there are monuments and archaeological evidence in Narmashir from prehistoric to the Islamic period .Therefore, this plain has played an important role in the social and political developments during the Islamic era in southeast Iran, like other urban centers of Kerman.The old city of Narmashir (Choghook Abad site) was one of the five cities of Kerman during the Sassanid and Islamic periods. This old city has 190 hectares, and it was called “Narm-Ardeshir” or “new-Hormoz-Ardeshir” in the Sasanid period. Narmashir was a warehouse for Bam and Oman goods, the center of agriculture and various fruits, the storehouse of Kerman Date, the settlement of wealthy merchant and the midway residence for Sistan pilgrims. But, this cultural landscape is unknown in the archaeological research of Iran. For this reason, introducing the archaeological sites of Narmashir, studying the developments of Islamic settlements in this cultural basin, and analyzing their interactions with neighboring cultural basins has an important role in understanding the cultures of the Islamic period in southeast Iran. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct extensive and methodical research in this cultural basin. The main question is that what are the characteristics of archaeological remains at Narmashir during the Islamic period? And, how is their distribution? The purpose of this article is to introduce, study the monuments, and explain the distribution map of Islamic sites of Narmashir. Materials and MethodsThe archaeological remains of the Islamic period in Narmashir were studied in this article and a map of historical sites in Narmashir was drawn.  Data were collected via fieldwork and documentary method. For this, the historical and geographical sources about the cities of Narmashir were studied at the beginning. Then a full coverage survey was conducted, and the remains of the Islamic sites and monuments in the Narmashir plain in an area of 32,000 hectares were recorded and documented. Finally, a map of the distribution of these sites and monuments was prepared, and the factors affecting the formation and development of this cultural landscape were explained. ResultsTwo urban or rural settlements, the old city of Narmashir (Choghok Abad) and Jalal Abad site, as the settlements from early to the late Islamic centuries were identified and studied in the archaeological survey of the cultural landscape of Narmashir plain. Rafi Abad Castle was also identified as a settlement that was used intermittently from the fifth century AH to the Qajar period. Qal’eh Shahid has been the landlord’s house since the late Zand and early Qajar eras. Pirmasha site and Jamali castle are other monuments of the early and middle Islamic period in Narmashir plain. Chehel Tokhm is probably one of the surviving caravanserais in Narmashir plain. Tepe Karton in the western parts of Narmashir cultural landscape is a hill from the Islamic Middle centuries. Furthermore, many towers were identified in this cultural landscape that follow the same pattern and style in construction and decoration. Probably all of these towers were built at the same time. The towers of Zia Abad, Enayat Abad, and Hojjat Abad are among the surviving towers in this plain. Discussion and ConclusionIt seems that two sites of the old city of Narmashir and Jalal Abad were developed between the first to middle Islamic centuries as central settlements in Narmashir plain, based on the study of the distribution map of the monuments and archaeological sites in Narmashir plain. The centrality of the old city of Narmashir and Jalal Abad site is also confirmed based on the comparison, study, and chronology of cultural materials of this two sites. Furthermore, Rafi Abad and Qal’eh Shahid were established as landlord residential centers or periphery settlements. It seems that Rafi Abad in the Middle Islamic centuries was associated with the old city of Narmashir and the Jalal Abad site. Qal’eh Shahid was also established to exploit agricultural lands and garden products in the alluvial plain of Narmashir. Pirmasha site and Jalali castle were considered as military and defense centers. These two buildings played a role in securing the central settlements of the Narmashir plain. The Chehel Tokhm Caravanserai was built to serve the caravans on the routes from the center of the Iranian plateau to Kerman, Bam, Sistan, and the coasts of Oman and India. Tepe Karton was probably considered an industrial site, based on the molded pottery pieces and molds. Furthermore, Zia Abad, Enayat Abad, and Hojjat Abad towers were built to control and maintain security in this plain.The study of the cultural-historical landscape of Narmashir showed that most of these monuments and sites were developed in a linear pattern with an east-west orientation. The formation of this pattern and the east-west axis is probably due to the main road connecting Kerman to Sistan as well as the geographical and climatic features of the Narmashir plain. On the other hand, the construction style and the type of materials in the royal residence of the old city of Narmashir, Shams Castle, Jalal Abad and its Qal’eh Dokhtar show some similarities. Bricks with dimensions of 10 × 38 × 38 cm were used in the main structures in all four buildings. The style and features of beams and flash-like watchtowers are the same in four buildings. The construction method of niches is similar in the buildings of the old city of Narmashir and Jamali Castle. In addition, the choice of location of the buildings indicates similar decisions. Because the Pirmasha site, Jalal Abad, and Jamali castle were built on top of natural sedimentary hills. Impermeable walls were created around these hills due to alluvium. This feature has ensured the security of these settlements. FundingThis research was supported by the administration of cultural heritage in Kerman under grant number 932/137/2736 in 2014, to compile the monuments and sites file for registration in the list of national monuments and sites. Author’s contributionSara Saghaee: Data curation, field archaeological survey, maps and findings design, Writing - original draft.Saeed Amirhajloo: Data curation, Funding acquisition, field archaeological survey, Project administration, review, and editing. Conflict of interestNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. AcknowledgmentsThe authors wish to acknowledge Mehri Javadi, expert of the administration of cultural heritage in Kerman, and also thanks Mohammad Reza Mansouri, expert of the Bam world heritage foundation. ReferencesAmirhajloo, Saeed, 2014a, Sounding for delimiting the Old City of Narmashir (Choghook Abad Site), Kerman Province, the archives of administration of cultural heritage in Kerman, (In Persian).Amirhajloo, Saeed, 2014b, The file of Zia Abad Tower for registration in the list of national monuments of Iran, the archives of administration of cultural heritage in Kerman, (In Persian).Garazhian, Omran; Rahmati, Masoud, 2012, “The First Period of Tal-e Atashi; Neolithic Culture before Pottery and its Architecture in the Landscape of Southeast of Iran”, Iranian Journal of Anthropology Research, Vol. 2, No. 1: 111-148, (In Persian).Hamawi, Yaqut, 1990, Mo’jam Al-Boldan, Vol. 5, Beirut: Dar Al-Kotob Elmiyah, (In Arabic).Ibn-e Khordadbeh, Nd. Al-Masalek va Al-Mamalek, Beirut: Dar Sader, (In Arabic).Maqdisi, Abu Abd-Allah, 2006, Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma’refat al-Aqalim, Tr. by Alinaqi Monzavi, second edition, Tehran: Koomesh, (In Persian).Mustawfi, Hamdallah, 1985, Tarikh-e Gozideh, Vol. 1, Compiled by Abdolhossein Navaee, Tehran: Amirkabir, (In Persian).Qudama Ibn-e Ja’far, 1991, Al-Kharaj, Tr. by Hossein Qarachanloo, Tehran: Alborz, (In Perisan).Ya’qubi, Ahmad Ibn-e Abi Yaqoub, 2002, Al-Boldan, 4th edition, Tr. by Mohammad Ibrahim Ayati, Tehran: Elmi Farhangi, (In Persian).Zare, Shahram, 2008, The report of the Second Season of Archaeological Survey in Bam county, the archives of administration of cultural heritage in Kerman, (In Persian).

One of the most notable Iranian earthenware in the middle medieval period of Islam, which is crafted by painting on a layer of glaze, is lusterware. According to archaeological studies, lusterware was manufactured from 2nd-3rd centuries A.H until the Qajari era; But the golden age of lusterware dates back between 6th to 8th centuries A.H. Numerous studies were conducted on lusterware from the medieval period of Islam which are mostly accomplished by the western researchers. However, in recent years some clues of lusterware were found following the archaeological excavations in Iran; But unfortunately, we have few information due to the limited report publications. Nevertheless, the available information is very important. The main purpose of this article is to study the history of lusterware in Iran with emphasis on the medieval period of Islam and also to discuss the manufacturing centers in the country.

The mausoleums are one of the manifestations of art in the Islamic architecture and has always been noticed in world of Islam, especially in Iran; In such a way that they are noticeable in most of the cities in Iran and in different historical periods. In the east side of Iran, especially in Sistan province, in internal or outer cemeteries of every historical city we can find samples of mausoleums which are very important in the region’s architecture. One of these cities that date back to the late Teimuri and the early Qajari era, is Howzdaar in south of Sistan, located in the Ramrood region which due to the high health rate of the monuments in this area, it is one of the best samples of the late architectural studies. This city holds the remains of the outer cemeteries which each one of them hold a number of unique mausoleums within. These mausoleums, which are varied in structure comparing to other similar samples, have a special place in the history of architecture in Sistan; However, with such high ranking, these mausoleums have never been comprehensively and specifically studied. In this context, the introduction and the study of these valuable heritage are the priorities of archaeological and the Islamic architectural studies in the region. The purpose of this research is to introduce, study and classify the architectural style of the mausoleums in the historic city of Howzdaar in Sistan.

Recent archaeological excavations in the historic city of Toos have provided important scientific facts. The discovery of the remains of city’s Masjed-e Jameh which the available data suggest that it was built in the mid fifth century A.H at the core of the city, is one of the results of these researches. From 5th to 9th centuries A.H, this Masjed-e Jameh has been reformed on so many different stages. The construction of a school in the eastern half of the chamber’s Qibla in the mosque, is sign of the finding importance of the education of mullahs especially in high tension times of 5 th-6th centuries A.H in Khorasan. In this article we will introduce this monument and it’s architectural structure.

Miniature paintings have always played an important role in the decoration of buildings and manuscripts, in order to deliver a special message. By studying the miniature paintings, we can discover social, political and cultural issues in each period. One of the topics in miniature paintings that we can put to consideration is the image of women. The purpose of this article is to study the image of women in Safavid and Qajar era based on miniature paintings; In this context, descriptive analysis was chosen as research method and all the information was gathered by studying the documents and desk study. The comparison of the image of women in the Safavid and Qajar miniature paintings was accomplished by comparative-analytical method: A) In the Safavid era, there is no difference between the image of men and women; On the contrary in the Qajar era, as a result of Westernization, the feminine features of the figures has been put to consideration and the sexism attitude towards women is reflected in the paintings of this era. B) In the Safavid era, women have an acceptable hijab but due to the Westernization and the fading religious practices in the Qajar era, hijab as an religious norm was less considered.

While describing the artistic atmosphere of Iran after the Muslim Conquest, the Seljuq era is so remarkable due to the abundance artwork and the unique style. The religious prejudices derived from the Sunni teachings among aristocrats and noblemen, along supporting the expansion and promotion of religious and educational places, also with the limitations in decorating the artworks, have all led to the rise of new innovations in creating artwork in this era. However, due to the abundant interest of aristocrats in Persian literature and astronomical sciences, the artists were encouraged to create their artwork in these two categories. The purpose of this research is to investigate the role and the impact of the Seljuq aristocrats and governors, on the content and the process of manufacturing the artwork, by studying the artistic evidence and citing the historical data. In conclusion, it appears that the governors and aristocrats who were following their religious and political tendencies with the purpose of driving back to their ancestor’s ideology, and also to expand their cultural and economic interactions with other nations, have interfered with the manufacturing process of artwoks and led it to their desirable direction.

The Baghdad school of miniature painting which is also known as an international school, plays an important role in illustrating the scientific and literary books by copying the spiritual principles of Islam. Under the influence of pre-Islam’s artistic schools, this school gradually evolved in order to narrow the differences between before and after Islam. The Teimuri school of miniature painting also known as the school of Herat, has a special place in the history of Iranian-Islamic miniature painting; With the ingenuity of the artists, this school created a golden era of miniature painting by relying on the fundamentals of previous schools such as Samarqand, Al Jalayer, Tabriz and Shiraz along with the influence of Chinese miniature painting. The purpose of this study is to interpret the process and the formation of Baghdad and Herat school, by explaining the subscriptions and differentiations based on the analysis of notable artwork from both schools, in order to determine the level of influence of Baghdad school on Herat school. Our findings suggest that, as result of the conquest of Baghdad by Teimur and relocating the artists of the Al Jalayer school to Samarqand, the descendants and remaining artists of the Abbasid school moved to the city of Herat and played an indirect role in creating the hybrid school of Herat. According to the social level, psychological attitude, decoration of animal and plant figures and etc, this phenomenon is clearly reflected in the artworks.

One of the most important findings in the excavated sites of the Islamic era are pottery. Among them, the blue and white pottery, due to their abundance, especially through the Islamic Middle Ages to the late Medieval, are very significant. Some researchers believe that the production of this type of pottery in Iran, had been a continuous trend from the third and fourth centuries AH till the late Islamic era and with the minimum changes in style.  In many excavations of the Islamic sites, numerous wares of this type has been obtained. Notably, the Collection of Sheikh Safi Ardabili, Museum of Chehel Sotoon, Reza Abbasi Museum and the Museum of Glass and Ceramics in Tehran, hold a number of these wares. Archaeological survey carried out in 2011 at Borkhar headed by Hajeiloo identified 136 ancient sites in which, among other types of pottery, the blue and white pottery shards were obtained. This article is allocated to epistemology, classification, chronology and analysis of this type of pottery in Borkhar region. Exclusively, we have studied 155 pieces of the blue and white porcelain of the Borkhar pottery database. This research seeks to examine the typology, chronology, motifs, composition and color range of these wares, and also tries to locate and categorize the production centers.

The politics of Ilkhanids dominating Iran in the 8th Century AH, resulted in an architectural form which its prominent feature was the massive size compared to their earlier buildings. In this era, the prevailing thought was that smaller sponsors should do smaller buildings, thus, we have an orderly sequence of three massive building complexes of Ghazania, Soltaniya and Alishah building. The resulted buildings could be identified as the appearance of the high ambitions of the Ilkhanid court in contrast to the existing circumstances of Iranian architecture.  Although the geographic and political aspects of the Soltaniya area made it relatively easy to study the spatial sturucture of the building, the increase in our understanding of the two other buildings will be due to the study of historical records and comparing to the remaining archaeological evidence. The following article focuses on the historical records regarding the Alishah building in Tabriz and tries to compare the information driven from these texts to the results drawn from the excavations, to understand the architectural form, spatial and practical structure of this building. This article shows that unlike the common belief, Alishah not only had the biggest brick arch in the world but it also had the greatest prayer halls beneath the dome in the Islamic world. Further, with the roofed shabestan, prayer hall, mihrab and minaret, and also based on the historical texts this building could be identified as a mosque.

The Seljuk era is one of the most important periods in the history of Iranian Islamic culture and art. Through an overview, it seems that the plasterwork decorations of this period include simple plant elements, half palmate and palmate leaves, artichoke leaves, five-lipped palm and lotus flowers, and in general, technically and in terms of the use of patterns and drawings, these decorations are based on plasterwork art in the Sassanid era. On the Seljuk altars, the main motifs are artichoke leaves, lotus flowers, and especially vines instead of leaf and rose ornaments. During this period, the motifs of the background of the inscriptions, at the end of which leaflets appear, have made great progress, the first examples of which can be seen in Rey Mosque and Imamzadeh Yahya, etc. In the Seljuk era, the same plant motifs of the Sassanid that included the lines and dimensions of a building period, it covers the lines of Islamic Kufi or the same decorative method, i.e. the branches that can be seen following some motifs of the Sassanid period. Here, too, they have emerged from the end of the Kufic letters.

Existence of plaster decorations of Karar shrine in Isfahan as a building from the Seljuk period which dated back to 528 AH, led the writers to present an independent study on how the Seljuk period plasterwork art was influenced by Sassanid plasterwork art. This tomb is located in Bouzan or Bouzoun, in the east of Isfahan, 6.5 km from the old caravan route to Nain . The old building is a tomb with dimensions of 40 square meters and belongs to the year 528 AH. In the year 713 AH, repairs have been done in this place and finally in 2001, the old building of the tomb was destroyed and a new building was built by the effort of the board of Trustees, donors and the Endowment Office. An iron shrine with dimensions of 3.5 × 2.5 square meters is located on the tombstone. The shrine has four porches with mirrors and beautiful paintings under the dome. The dome of the shrine has a height of 23 meters up to the ceiling. From the tomb of this Imamzadeh, which is surrounded by newer buildings, except for a part of the main nave and its southern wall, which is covered with a very beautiful altar which dated back to 528 AH, no other artifacts remain. The main purpose of this study, while introducing and describing the form and shape of the decorative patterns of the plasterworks of the Imamzadeh Karar of Isfahan, is to study the background of these decorative motifs and their origins. This research has been completed descriptively-analytically and with a comparative view and relying on field studies (referring to the National Museum of Iran, preparing images and designing them) and library studies.

Most of the decorative motifs of Karar shrine, are consist of plant motifs such as rosette, grape leaves and clusters, artichoke leaf, pine fruit, tulip, four-leaf clover and palm leaf, and geometric motifs such as circle (pearl shape), star, triangular, zigzag and rhombic. Comparative studies on the plasterwork decorations of Sassanid sites, such as Hajiabad, Bishabour, Hesar Tappeh, Tappeh Mill, Chal Tarkhan, Shush, Taq-e Bostan, Hezar Castle in Nizamabad, Barz Qavaleh, Qala Gori, Yazdgerd Castle, Kish, etc., with the plasterworks decorations of the Karar shrine in Isfahan, reflect the direct influence of Sassanid art on Islamic plasterwork art. In the Islamic era, artists have correctly revealed the influence of Sassanid art by using subjects such as grape leaves, artichoke leaves, palm leaves, pearl patterns, etc. The decorations in this building, such as the plaster decorations of Nain Mosque, Isfahan Mosque, Robat Sharaf altars, Sangan Mosque, Alavian Dome of Hamedan, etc., are based on the foundations of Sassanid works. Most of these motifs in a wide range of Sassanid culture and civilization reflect aspects of pre-Islamic mythological beliefs in Iran. In the plaster decorations of the Karar shrine in Isfahan, the artists of the Islamic period, while imitating the designs of the Sassanid plasters, have presented innovations in combining the patterns and changing their decorative themes. Such an effect can be studied from the two perspectives of imitation, and imitation along with change and innovation. In the field of decorative motifs of the plasterworks of this shrine, borrowing Sassanid decorative motifs in terms of the type of motifs and their method of execution, which is mostly in the form of carvings and engravings, as well as the general characteristics of the Sassanid period plaster ornaments such as contrast, symmetry, and repetition, is a direct imitation of the Sassanid plaster art. However, in the field of innovations and executive changes of these designs in the decorative surfaces of this shrine, the combination of grape leaves and clusters with artichoke leaves, placing rosette buds inside concentric circles,ending the end of the circle curve with elements such as grape leaves, artichoke and palm with more edges and petals, the continuation of the motifs in an infinite extension and most importantly, the combination and placement of inscriptions with divine and religious themes pointed to these motifs. Therefore, the effect of plaster art of the Sassanid period on the bedding art used in decorating the interior surfaces of the Karar shrine building in Isfahan can be considered a direct and obvious effect along with innovations in the execution and composition of decorative designs.

The plaster decorations of the Imamzadeh Karar building in Isfahan, like the plaster decorations of buildings such as Nain Mosque, Isfahan Mosque, Robat Sharaf altars, Sangan Mosque, Alavian dome of Hamadan, etc., in the early Islamic centuries, are comprehensive examples of the influence of Sassanid plaster art on plaster art. Iran is in the Islamic era. Patterns such as vine with central stem and broad leaves, grape fruit, circular pearls, rosette, artichoke leaf, pine fruit, tulip, four-leaf clover, palm leaf, star motifs, rhombus and zigzag pattern are some of the motifs widely used in gypsum decorations in the Sassanid era with a very rich mythological background. Undoubtedly, being in the land of Iran, employing Iranian artists, the existence of cultural and artistic richness in this land, directly affected the cultural and civilization atmosphere of the divine religion of Islam. On the contrary, with the domination of Islam over Iranian culture and civilization, Iranian communities within Islamic culture, in order to grow and survive, lost their mythological look. During this period, inscriptions with religious and divine themes, along with plant and geometric motifs, showed the nature and dimensions of human existence under the domination of divine power. As mentioned, the influence of the art of plasterwork in the Sassanid period on the plaster art of the first Islamic centuries can be studied from two perspectives: imitation and imitation along with change and innovation. The plaster decorations of the Karar shrine in Isfahan show the imitation of Sassanid decorative motifs along with changes and innovations in the execution of decorative surfaces. These motifs should be considered as a comprehensive example of the transition of decorative motifs of Iranian plasterworks to the first centuries of Islam.Funding: There is no Funding support Authors' Contribution: The authors' participation in the preparation of this article is confirmed as follows; the findings were collected by Akbar Sharifinia and the analysis and comparative studies were performed by Majid Sarikhani and Akbar Sharifinia. Finally, all authors review the research results and approve the final version of the article.Conflict of Interest: Authors declared no conflict of interest. 

Saqanfar is a simple and generally two-floored building made of wood. This building has a religious, ritual and local function and has always been constructed next to Tekyehs in a way that Saqanfar (symbol of Abulfazl) and Tekyeh (symbol of Imam Hussein)  together form an inseparable complex facing the Qibla (direction to Mecca). The motifs employed in the Saqanfars contain local themes, narratives of most of the daily activities of the people, tales of the ancients and national symbols and epics. Therefore, the questions of the present research are the following: 1. what is the origin of the motifs used in the Saqanfars? 2. What is the main reason for manifestation of mythological/local themes in the structure of the Saqanfars? Undoubtedly, Iranian myths and epics are one of the constituents of identity formation in the creation of the motifs used in the Saqanfars. The paintings of the three Saqanfars date back to the Qajar era. Due to great diversity of the motifs, they were divided into the humanistic, animalistic, vegetal, geometrical and mythological categories. Some of the motifs contain pure religious themes such as the Battle of Karbala, stories of Quran, the Doomsday and etc. The main aim of this article is to identify mythological/local themes of the motifs used in these buildings by comparing the motifs used in the three Saqanfars in Shia Deh, Ladar and Shahzadeh Reza in order to reveal the intentions for manifestation of these themes in these religious buildings. Based on the obtained results, it is inferred that the origin of some of the motifs such as sun motif goes back to the ancient Iran and the origin of some other mythological and epic motifs dates back to the Iranian national identity, which the local people were familiar with by the oral culture and heroic narratives. The origin of some other motifs is the Islamic beliefs which were popular during the Qajar era. The main reasons for the existence of the mythological/local motifs were probably the familiarity of the local people with the epics, the intention to preserve the national identity, and also people’s engagement in daily activities which were incorporated into Saqanfars paintings. Using a descriptive/analytic research method, library data collection and archaeological field observation, the authors of the article seek to study the motifs and their main themes. In analyzing the motifs, the reasons for manifestation of these motifs will be studied and the frequency of these motifs in the three Saqanfars will be compared.

With the vacuum created after the assassination of Ahmad ibn Ismail in the month of Jumada al-Thaniin 301 AH, dual fronts were formed to gain the Emirate: the Bukhara Front and the appointment of the eight-year-old son of Ahmad, Nasr, and the Samarqand Front The elder of the Samani family, brother of Amir Ismail (295-279 AH), Ishaq Ibn Ahmad; Eventually, this dispute ended in favor of Amir Nasr with the victory of Bukhara over Samarkand. Since Isaac ruled the emirate for a short time, he minted dinars and dirhams (Samarkand struck in 301 AH); So look for these coins in numismatic sources to find more information on this subject. Due to the fact that history books provide scattered and different information, especially the time of this event, these coins, which were struck at the height of the chaos, It can be placed as a valuable document alongside other books and archaeological data and shed light on some of the dark points of the history of this period. Therefore, the central issue of this research, in addition to introducing these important coins, is to reconstruct and determine the causes of some events in this period. This research raises two main questions: 1. How can the events of that era be reconstructed using the coins of Amir Ishaq (Samarqand dirhams and dinars minted in 301 AH)? 2. Why is the mention of the Abbasid Caliph coined on these coins and what effect did it have on the legal legitimacy of Ishaq Emirate?

the main basis of this article is coin data, especially two important coins of Amir Ishaq, which date back to 301 AH. They were built in the city of Samarqand. In this research, perceptual archeological approaches and historical approach were used to examine the ancient data, ie coins. Perceptual archeology is the study of the way of thinking in the past, which discovers mental products through the remnants of the past. The historical approach is the reconstruction of the human past based on the critical analysis of historical texts, which is finally evaluated with archaeological data and provides the final analysis. In fact, the use of perceptual archeology and historical approach in the Samanid era, which has left both material evidence and historical texts, can be the main and appropriate basis.

Initially, the purpose of creating coins was to facilitate exchanges and trade, but after a short time, coins became a symbol of ethnicity, sovereignty, independence, etc .; The Samanid Emirate and other contemporary Islamic emirates were not outside the scope of this argument; But it goes without saying that at that time, the permission of the Caliph of Baghdad was a prerequisite for minting coins. Each of the emirate's claimants presented letters to the caliph demanding the legitimacy of their emirate. Although the Caliph of Baghdad may have a positive and reciprocal view of either, he most likely first had a positive view of Isaac and affirmed his rule, because according to up-to-date historical texts The first of Muharram in the year 302 AH. It was reported that Nasr overcame Ishaq and took him captive, so the caliph sent a disgrace and a brigade to Nasr; Another example is that Ishaq in the second half of 301 AH. He started minting all kinds of coins in Samarqand (coins discussed in the article) and his son Mansur, who had the Emirate of Nishabur, minted dinars in Nishabur in support of his father; But Nasr struck coins only when Ishaq and his army were killed at the end of 301 AH. They had defeated and opened Samarqand. Eventually, Ishaq ibn Ahmad was captured and taken to Bukhara, until finally in the month of Safar in 302 AH. He died in Bukhara prison.

With the assassination of Ahmad ibn Ismail, two confrontations arose between Amir Ishaq in Samarqand and the supporters of Amir Nasr in Bukhara to seize power in the Samanid Emirate, and widespread unrest spread throughout the Samanid realm; Eventually, Samarqand's troops were defeated in this war, Ishaq was arrested and settled in Bukhara prison, and finally Amir Bukhara, Nasr became emir of all the lands of the Samani Emirate. Unfortunately, historical texts have provided different and scattered information about this, so the discovery and introduction of significant coins, also belonging to this time, was able to reduce the unknowns and provide a more coherent view to researchers. These two coins represent the dinars and dirhams of it by Ishaq Ibn Ahmad Samani, who died on the Samarqand front in 301 AH. Have been multiplied. But the main knot that was untied by these coins was the question of the legitimacy of the parties by the Abbasid Caliphate; Although the Caliph of Baghdad could have had a positive and reciprocal view of each of these claimants, it is almost certain that the Caliph initially preferred Isaac and affirmed his rule, because Isaac in The second half of the year 301 AH. In the most important cities of his influence (Samarqand and Nishabur), he minted all kinds of coins in his own name and the caliph of the time, Al-Muqtadir, while the most important purpose of minting coins in that era was to show the power of the coin owner. Has been in the area; However, history did not mention a coin called Nasr in Bukhara, and after the defeat of Isaac at the end of 301 AH. In Samarqand, dinars and dirhams were minted in his name.

There is no funding support Authors' contribution … Conflict of interest Authors declared no conflict of interest Acknowledgments …