پژوهشنامه تمدن ایرانی
سال سوم شماره 2 (پیاپی 6، پاییز و زمستان 1400)

The emergence of the Shiite government of Al-Buwayh as one of the most significant historical events in the fourth and fifth century AH had profound effects on the society especially on the economic conditions. Given the relative political stability of Iraq during this period, as well as the Buyid emirs’ wise implementation of economic policies and measures, many of which were considered progressive and innovative in the world at that time, Iraq witnessed rapid economic growth and development. The main question of the research is what were the most important economic actions of Al-Buwayh in Iraq? This research is a qualitative research, that is done using  documentary analysis and historical and library documents. Findings revealed that with the efforts of emirs including Rokn al-Dawla, Imad al-Dawla, Adud al-Dawla, Mu'izz al-Dawla and others, the Buyid dynasty could rule over affluent areas like Jibal, Fars, Khuzistan, and Iraq, while enjoying natural conditions of economy, like agriculture, mine,  water wealth and industry, their economic growth was boosted by the emirs’ economic measures and policies, such as cities’ and bazaars’ development, reconstruction of dams, controlling commercial and non-commercial roads, taxation, and focus on business. However, some emirs, in contrast with first rulers, did not care about economic matters and people’s life by heavy taxations, neglecting business growth, dam construction and irrigation, all of which led to economic regression, destruction of cities and bazaars, and consequently to riots, economic crises, and the emergence of a group called Ayyaran in areas like Baghdad and Karkh, who brought insecurity and plundered businessmen’s properties  during the last years of the Buyid dynasty.

After the decline of the Arsacid Empire, Sasanians were strong antagonists of the Roman and then Byzantine empires. Also, Sasanian history was the apex of the ancient East and the last period before the advent of Islam in Persia. Iranian and non-Iranian scholars have been engaged in the research into the history, economy, culture, religion, and society of the Persia of Sasanian era. Grundzüge der Geschichte des sasanidischen Reiches (1990), authored by Klaus Schippmann, a German archeologist, is a concise study of the Sasanian history, religion, economy, and archeology and art. The information contained in this monograph will not please the experts on the Sasanian history. It will however be of use for the students and those interested in the history of the period. Kaykavus Jahandari, a renowned translator, has translated the book from German into Persian under the title Mabāni-ye Tārīkh-e Sāsāniyān (Outlines of the History of Sasanian Empire). The first edition was published in 2005 by Farzān-e Rūz. This essay is a review of both the content and the form of the book, the viewpoints provided by the author, and an appraisal of the Persian translation.

Lorestan bronze objects are symbolically divided into four categories: animal motifs, plant motifs, human motifs and geometric motifs. The image of Gilgamesh can also be seen among the symbols used in Lorestan bronze objects. This role has been depicted in different forms with more artistry and skill, and each of them has a semantic and conceptual burden that reveals and studies these objects and reveals the beliefs of the people of that period. The present article took a descriptive-analytical method using library resources. In this article, objects have been selected whose images are symbolically in line with the subject of study. Therefore, the main question and issue of this research was posed as follows: According to the background mentioned in this article, the presence of the image of Gilgamesh in the bronze works of Lorestan, what is the relationship between the use of the role and the culture of the people of the region? The results showed that using the role of Gilgamesh to turn women and chariots back indicates that the people of Lorestan did not consider Gilgamesh as a god, but considered it as a spell against the source of wounds and the power of evil. Lorestan bronze workers have used the role of Gilgamesh in the decorative and non-decorative objects they used, including hairpins and votive objects, and even on weapons. The role of Gilgamesh on Lorestan bronzes is inspired by the art of Mesopotamia and Ilam, and after Ilam, it was adopted in bronze objects of other areas of Lorestan.

With the formation of the Safavid government and the establishment of stability and authority in Iran, the ground was laid for communication between Iran and other European countries. Subsequently, ambassadors and agents from these countries traveled to Iran for various reasons, and a number of them wrote these travel itineraries. Among the issues that the travelers have addressed are the court life and the Harem of the Safavid kings. The present study tried to investigate the viewpoints of European travelers regarding the Safavid royal women of Harem and the power and influence of the Haram in the administration of the country by using descriptive-analytical method and first-hand sources. According to the findings, there were certain customs and laws within the Harem, and the Safavid kings had complete control over their Harem, assigned various forces to govern it, and prevented their influence and interference in the affairs as long as they were in power and controlled the population of women and princes and their authority in different ways. But if the king did not have enough authority, he would easily be influenced by the power of the harem women and run the monarchy according to their wishes.

Humans have been dependent on hunting for survival, but the role of hunting somehow changed in the Assyrian civilization, and became a tool to show the power of kings in the form of images of hunting powerful animals or war scenes. One of the subjects that was worked as a relief or seal in the Achaemenid period in Iran was the king’s battle with a hybrid animal. On the other hand, this image is demonstrated in the form of a relief in the ancient Elamite civilization, called Enumaleiš. The comparative study of the creation myths of ancient Iran and Mesopotamia could reveal the common concept of battle with lions or hybrid animals in the Achaemenid and Babylonian reliefs. This research takes a comparative approach to study motifs and myths. According to the alignment of the myths of Iran and Mesopotamia, the question is, what was the purpose of raising this issue in Iranian and Mesopotamian art? The research method was descriptive-analytical and the method of data collection was library-based. The results of the research showed that the artists’ motivation in creating these reliefs was to explain their surrounding world based on the transformation of nature, fertility, and peace. Also, the king’s battle with the hybrid animal has illustrated the myth of order and disorder and good and evil, which has been the commonality and intellectual unity of neighboring civilizations in dealing with nature and establishing order in it.

The industry and art of shalbafi in Kerman is not only an art, but also an influential culture for locals. One of the most significant guild in the Qajar dynasty was constituted by Kermanshalbafi industry in which more than a third of people were employed. Meanwhile, travelers had been describing shalbafan conditions in Kerman as child abuse, long working hours, and low payment. This low-paid occupation was a source of lucrative business for the workshop owners. In addition, the government's ruthless leadership and the rise of political actions in Kerman led to the working class insurrection on which there was found little research. As a result, this insurrection has not gained a proper place in the historical changes. In fact, the government had lost its power during the insurrection in Kerman and a certain group of people found the position to rule the city.           This paper has been written based on the original references and has utilized historical research methodology which aims at investigating the circumstances, quality, and the end of the shalbafaninsurrection in the era of MortezaGholikhan government (1868-1878 AD) and its suppression by MirzaFarmanfarma, the government of Kerman (1878-1880 AD).

Indigenous-traditional arts in each region are the visual and cultural representation of that region. Since these industries rely more on materials and indigenous and traditional expertise, in addition to being practical, they represent people’s lifestyle, the thought and culture of the artists. ziloubafi, pottery and architecture are among the oldest traditional and indigenous arts in Meybod, a city located 50 kms from Yazd province, and have been formed and developed in the Islamic period in line with the principles of Islamic art. The remarkable variety of motifs in zilou, pottery and local Architectural decorations, composition and structural principles specific to these traditional arts, has led to coherence in the composition of motifs and colors in them and has accommodated a wide range of culture and beliefs of Meybod residents. This paper studies the relationship between the concepts of motifs in the three aforementioned arts, with focus on ziloubafi and its comparison with the two other arts. The primary question of this study is what were the fundamental characteristics and concepts of the three idiosyncratic arts of Meybod, which were based on the artists’ culture and beliefs, that could not only remain during the Islamic period, but could be universally registered? And the secondary question is what kind of relationship between form and structure of zilou, pottery, and architecture of Meybod and the culture and society of this region? The purpose of the study is that 1) identifying effective factors in the combination of designs and colors of zilou, pottery, and architecture decorations of Meybod could lead to visual aesthetics despite simplicity, and this is the main aesthetic principle of Islamic art based on unity and simplicity. 2) recognition, analysis and comparison of the designs and colors of zilou with those of pottery and local architecture decorations is based on emphasis on visual principles of Islamic art. The research method is descriptive (qualitative content analysis) and the relationship between the mentioned factors and the visual characteristics of Islamic art has been investigated using the quantitative content analysis application, called MAXQDA 2020. The indigenous-traditional arts of Meybod developed over time while preserving their roots and their symbolic aspect and beauty is in line with visual aesthetics of Islamic art. These three arts were in line with the spiritual and psychological needs of the people of their region and reflected the Islamic culture. These arts can survive and develop via local technologies of the present time with proper plans in the production process, use, and biocompatibility. Also, the link between the past and future can lay the ground for innovations in this field, which is an important factor in the preservation of indigenous and traditional arts per se.

Utilization of natural energies has been one of the most important features of building formation since ancient times.This issue has become very important in desert and semi-desert areas due to severe climatic conditions.Iranian Islamic architecture has always been formed in accordance with the climate in order to use natural energy, in which the two main components of orientation and form in the construction of the building have been greatly influenced by the climate.One of the important buildings in the past were caravanserais and ligaments, which due to their location and function, had to create suitable conditions for climatic conditions.Therefore, the use of natural energy in it has been important. caravanserais of the Seljuk period on the Khorasan highway had reached their peak of development due to political stability, cultural contexts, suitable social context, as well as the increase of trade and economic prosperity.One of the most valuable and significant ligaments in this period is the ligament of honor.This magnificent building is located next to the Silk Road on the way from Saraks to Mashhad and the semi-desert climate.The construction of the building, its orientation and form have been formed taking into account the climatic conditions of the region.Therefore, the question is expressed as follows:What has been the effect of the climatic conditions of the region on the orientation and form of the building of RobatSharaf in order to manage the energy of the interior space during the year?And what is the relationship between these building components and internal energy performance?

The good tradition of devotion (waqf) is one of the evident examples of beneficence and benevolence that man, under the influence of the teachings of the prophets, has established for a long time and has always responded to a large part of the needs of his society by creating public buildings and determining endowments for them. In other words, endowments, with different functions, have played a significant role in various eras and could be largely effective in the establishment and maintenance of cultural, economic and public institutions. This study is to shed light on devotion in Kerman in the fifth century AH, during the Seljuk period. To this aim, after fiving an introduction on how the Seljuk government was formed in Kerman, devotion in this period will be investigated and the Seljuk rulers’ role and efforts in promoting endowments will be identified. The findings suggest that during the Seljuk rule in Kerman, the tradition of devotion had a remarkable expansion, as a consequence of which public affairs and the provision of welfare services came into the attention of rulers and benefactors. The research method was historical with a descriptive-analytical approach and based on library studies.

Ayyaran was one of the effective social groups in the history of Iran. The Mongol invasion and its political and social consequences, in the seventh and eighth centuries AH, laid the ground for the activity and activism of the Ayyaran and the reflection of some of their characteristics, teachings and traditions in literary and mystical texts of this period, like the Divan of Hafiz. Hafiz's view of this social group and how their social characteristics and traditions are manifested in his poetry is a significant issue that has not been addressed. Using a descriptive-analytical method, this article seeks to answer the following questions: What characteristics and teachings of Ayyaran were included in Hafiz’s poetry? And what is his view of this social group and how much does it overlap with social and historical realities? The findings indicated that Hafiz, by recognizing the fame and influence of Ayyaran in the political and social interactions of his past and present, reproduced some of the positive characteristics, traditions and teachings of Ayyaran, such as courage and fearlessness, cheerfulness, shrewdness, agility and some of their reprehensible and negative characteristics, such as cruelty, chaotic city, night owl and robbery in his court. From a realistic point of view, in a direct and indirect way, he puts this social group, their social and individual characteristics and teachings in the service of enriching the structure and content of some of his poems, and by creating romantic, mystical, educational themes, images, and magical and novel sensory and mental atmosphere, have achieved unparalleled success.

Achaemenids founded an integrated civilization including Babylon, Assyria, Elam, Lydia, Media, Egypt, Greeks of Asia Minor and some parts of India during the sixth to fourth century BC.  The founder of the Achaemenid civilization, Cyrus II, came to power in 559 BC. During 559 to 539 BC, by conquering Ecbatana, Sardis, Babylon and coasts of Asia Minor, Cyrus became the heir of great civilizations of West Asia. Ancestry of Persian Cyrus II, has been one of the most controversial issues of the Achaemenid civilization in the last decades, which brought about different and sometimes opposite ideas. Roots of this challenge would be found in the fundamental written sources related to this period, because in addition to deficiency and limitation, which are characteristics of classical texts of the ancient period, narratives have other problems such as contradiction and paradox; so that, at least, three general different contents would be seen in narratives on this issue. Some narratives consider Cyrus as a Median-Persian. Others believe that his father was a bandit and his mother was a goatherd. Archeological sources call him “Cyrus, King of Anshan”. One of the most important sources about Cyrus II’s ancestry is Herodotus Halicarnassus’s narrative in his first book called Clio, in which he is considered as Persian-Median. This research aims to study and analyze Herodotus’s narrative about the Persian-Median ancestry of Cyrus II. The research method was library descriptive-analytic, using archeological and literary evidence.

The Nizari Isma’ili community of Iran during the time of Hassan Sabbah was modeled on the universal Isma’ili invitation before the Nizari period (old invitation), which was composed of various social groups and had its own cultural identity with signs such as scientific center, educational system and popularity of Persian language and some knowledge. During this period, the Nizaris of Iran were able to manage the economic situation of their society with the help of the Nizaris, war booty, taxation, and some civil activities in areas under their control. The Question of the present study is about the social, cultural, and economic life of the Nizari Isma’ili of Iran during the time of Hassan Sabbah. This study aims to show the evolution of the Nizari community of Iran in its early period. The research method is descriptive-analytical based on library resources. The results indicated that during the time of Hassan Sabbah, followers of different social classes were attracted to the Nizari invitation and were able to flourish the Iranian Nizari community in cultural aspects and stabilize it in economical aspects.

After mosques, tombs are the second largest religious and semi-religious buildings in the Islamic world.In the Islamic era, especially in the Middle Ages and the Ilkhanids, attention was paid to perfectionism and making the building as glorious as possible, including the plan, the multiplicity of space, and the decorations in the best and most efficient way.The use of numerical expansions, especially even numbers, the concentration of spaces symmetrically, the multiplicity of lateral spaces and their combination together led to the flourishing and expansion of a kind of architectural style of the building complex with octagonal and octagonal plan.The tomb of Yousef Reza Varamin and the monastery of Sheikh Abdul Samad Natanz are also among the collections of these tombs of the Ilkhanid era. The two tombs have similarities and differences in style, architecture and decoration. The purpose of writing this article is to investigate the influence of political, cultural and religious factors of the patriarchal period in the formation of some identical features between the Architecture and decorations of the tomb of Yousef Reza Varamin and the monastery of Sheikh Abdul Samad Natanz.Considering the importance of the growth and expansion of Sufism and Shiism during the Mongol period, the effects of Sufism and Shiism's beliefs on the thoughts and ideas of the supporters of these two mausoleums can be seen as one of the most important reasons for the formation of some architectural similarities, especially octagonal architecture. There are two buildings.

Mantiq al-Tair written by Attar is a travelogue in the form of a mystical epic with a symbolic expression in the language of birds. This ritual travelogue has been written with passing through the valleys, passing and following the connection of Si-morgh (thirty birds) to Simorgh. this research will decipher the mystical symbols of the story and match its symbols and valleys with the hierarchy of access in the spaces of Iranian mosques. This analysis and decoding is based on two categories of symbolism; The first category is "extra-textual symbols", which examines the interactive influence of literary and architectural works ie Mantiq al-Tair and the sacred architecture of mosques in five types of symbolism. The second category is "symbols within the text" which deals with the interpretation of the course of the story in the "inner space" of literary and architectural works, in similarity with each other. The method of collecting materials in this research is documentary base and the research method in this article will be descriptive-analytical and logical reasoning strategy in the next step. In these studies, both categories of symbolism (external and internal text) of the mystical story, in accordance with the sacred architecture of Iranian mosques in the form of the ratio of the seven valleys of the ritual journey of the story with the hierarchy of access to mosque spaces, and the proportion of the seeker's existence with the worshiper who symbolizes in the direction of connection through the path will be presented.