نشریه بوم شناسی کشاورزی
سال چهاردهم شماره 2 (تابستان 1401)

Purple coneflower is one of the most important medicinal plants known for its anti-bacterial and anti-virus effects. This perennial herb from the Asteraceae family is native to North America and is planted widely in Europe. All parts of the plant contain useful chemical compounds such as Chicoric acid, Isobutyl, Polysaccharides, and Essential oils. Planting population and the amount of water applied are important management practices for all crops, particularly medicinal plants, due to a prefund effect of these parameters on the chemical constituents of these plants. An optimum planting population of 25 plants per m2 is normally practiced for Purple coneflower, but higher populations of up to 40 plants per m2 have also been reported. Water stress has been reported to increase Chicoric acid and Folic acid but not Essential oils. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate plant density and the amount of irrigation water on different agronomic criteria of Purple coneflower under climatic conditions of Mashhad.

In order to investigate the effects of different irrigation levels and plant density on yield and other criteria of Purple coneflower, an experiment was conducted at the Agricultural Research Station of the Faculty of Agriculture, the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the years 2009-2010 and 2010-2011. A split plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted. Irrigation with four levels at 50, 100. 150 and 200 mm evaporations from evaporation pan class A were allocated to the main plots, and two plant densities of 20 and 30 plants per m2 were used as subplots. Leaf area index, dry matter yield, plant height, number of branches, number of flowers per plant, average flowers weight per plant, number and dry weight of flowers per plant, number of flowers per unit area, fresh and dry weight of flower and root dry weight were recorded.

Results showed that all the investigated criteria were affected by irrigation levels. Plant density also affected all criteria except those of weight per flower and fresh flower weight per unit area. The highest flower yield per unit area was obtained from 50 mm irrigation level and plant density of 30 plants per m2. The lowest flower yield was obtained from 200 mm irrigation level and 20 plants per m2. However, irrigation levels of 50 and 100 mm and plant density of 30 plants per m2 were the most promising practices for maximum flower yield.

Since irrigation levels and plant density are two important factors affecting most plant criteria, it is important to investigate these practices for crop production, particularly in medicinal plants where chemical compounds are also sensitive to these two parameters. For Purple coneflower, it appears that irrigation levels of 50 and 100 mm and plant density of 30 plants per m2 are practices that can be recommended, though more investigations are required to make assurance.
Keywords: Dry Matter, LAI, Medicinal plant, Water stress

Conventional tillage methods increase energy costs and lead to the destruction and reduction of water and soil resources, and for a long time, have an adverse effect on soil properties and cause the formation of hard layers. Repeated tillage and deep plowing cause a quick release of carbon dioxide, causing soil and greenhouse effects and, in the long run, undesirable effects on soil characteristics. Compared with conventional tillage, protective tillage reduces the number of agricultural operations, which has many benefits. So that the loss of moisture and destruction of the soil structure would be reduced. Furthermore, the oxidation of organic residues of plants is reduced. Research has shown that the maintenance of a part of the previous crop residues on the surface of soil and the presence of superfluous roots of arable crops in the soil at a rate of two-thirds, reduce the amount of soil compaction in compared with uncoated and unpolluted land. Therefore, the present study was conducted to investigate the effect of different tillage methods and plant residue management on wheat and organic carbon of soil in Mashhad weather conditions.

 This research was carried out as a three-year experiment with wheat –rapeseed - wheat rotation as split plots in a randomized complete block design with three replications. In this design, different tillage methods were considered as the main plot and management of plant residues as a subplot. Tillage methods consist of three levels: conventional tillage (plowing + discing + leveling + farrowing + planting with seeding machine), low tillage (light discing + farrowing + planting with seeding machine), and no tillage (direct sowing with seeding machine). Also, the management of plant residues includes three levels: no residues, 30 percent of plant residues, and 60 percent of the previous crop residues. Characteristics of heading and maturity dates, wheat yield and yield components, and soil organic carbon content were investigated.

The results showed that the longest time for the occurrence of heading and maturity was observed in conventional tillage treatment. So that, it was only in this treatment the heading and maturity stages occurred on dates more than 170 and 202 days after sowing, respectively. Treatment of no residues with 168.22 days after the sowing date had the most extended date of heading. No-tillage treatment significantly decreased the number of spikes per square meter and 1000-seeds weight. However, there was no significant difference between the levels of plant residues in no-tillage treatment. No-tillage significantly reduced the grain yield of wheat. Though in no-tillage conditions and 30 percent of plant residues, grain yield was significantly higher than 60 percent, and no residues were in the same tillage conditions. The highest grain and biological yields were observed in conventional tillage treatments and in 30 and 60 percent of plant residues. Conventional tillage significantly reduced the soil's organic carbon content. Low tillage treatment at 30 and 60 percent of plant residues observed the highest organic carbon and nitrogen.

Although wheat's grain and biological yield in conventional tillage treatments were more than low tillage and no-tillage, low tillage improved the organic carbon content of the soil, and this phenomenon can have a positive effect on plant yield in the long run. Therefore, preservation of 30 percent of rapeseed residues with low tillage in wheat - rapeseed - wheat is recommended.

Agriculture plays a central role in countries' food and economic security, and population growth has increased dependence on it. The Nazluchai basin is one of the important areas for agriculture in Iran, and improper land use has destroyed water and soil resources in the area. One way to improve this situation is land suitability assessment. Land suitability analysis is a multi-criteria decision-making process based on a spatial information system. On the other hand, various systems analyze descriptive and spatial data. However, the Geographic Information System is one of the best methods to acquire, edit, process, and manage data quickly, accurately and simultaneously in large volumes. However, this system also has limitations in decision making. Therefore, the integration of geographical information system with Multi-Criteria Evaluation methods, including Analytical Hierarchy Process, has been proposed as a land suitability assessment method. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the ecological suitability for irrigated farming in a part of Nazluchai with an area of ​​23314 hectares using multi-criteria evaluation within the analytical hierarchy process and geographical information system.

At first, the parameters affecting the ecological land suitability for irrigated farming were identified, and the necessary data were collected and mapped using Geographic Information System. The criteria and sub-criteria were weighed based on expert opinions within Analytical Hierarchy Process. The homogeneous units were prepared by combining the sub-criteria standardized maps. The main limiting criteria in this study, including a slope less than 8% and a water quantity less than 3,000 liter/ha/year, were involved in the Boolean logic analysis. The ecological land suitability map for irrigated farming was generated using the Linear Weight Combination method and was classified into unsuitable, marginally, moderately, and highly suitable classes.

In the current land use map, 46.4% of the area was used for irrigated cultivations, 32.2% for range-dry farming on slopes above 30%, 12.6% for dry farming on slopes of 12-30%, and 0.8% was allocated to dry farming in areas with a slope less than 12%. Rocky and bare lands also cover 8% of the area. The matrix of the main criteria includes the landform, climate, soil, and water resources. Water resources have the highest weight for irrigated farming, and climate and soil are in the next rank. According to experts, the most important sub-criteria for assessing land suitability for irrigated farming are water quantity, temperature, texture, and soil fertility. Therefore, water resources are one of the most important and limiting resources to agriculture development in the basin, affecting other ecological resources. The ecological suitability map showed that 28.2% of the study area is the best area for irrigated farming, i.e., highly suitable class, 16.4% is moderately suitable class and 8% is marginally suitable class. 47% of the study area was classified as unsuitable for irrigated farming. In ecological suitability and current land-use maps, there is about 11% mismatch, and in 89% of the area, current land use is compatible with the ecological suitability of the study area. The results also show that integrating remote sensing, spatial information systems, analytical hierarchy processes, and weighted linear combinations is useful and effective for assessing land suitability and land-use planning.

This study is an important and useful regional guide for agricultural land planning. In order to prevent degradation, land suitability assessment, and optimal management, based on the principles of land-use planning using such new techniques and technologies, can be a fundamental solution for the relevant organizations. It is important to resolve environmental problems and create the conditions for sustainable development.

Plants are exposed to several environmental stresses, all affecting plant growth, and development, which hampers crop plants' productivity. The mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) is a plant species from the legume family. This plant is an enriched source of protein, fiber, antioxidants, and phytonutrients. It plays an important role in the human diet and improves soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The average yield of mungbean is quite low. One way to improve crop yield and production is the management of fertilizers such as spent mushroom compost that greatly affect mungbean growth, development, and yield. Spent mushroom compost (SMC) is the residual compost waste generated by the mushroom production industry. It is readily available, and its formulation generally consists of wheat straw, dried blood, horse manure, and ground chalk composted together. This research was carried out to study the effects of different levels of spent mushroom compost on mungbean's quantitative yield and water use efficiency under drought stress. 

This research was conducted in 2016-17 as a split plot based on a completely randomized block design with three replications at the Research Farm of the University of Gonabad. Main factor levels concluded of full irrigation (300 m3 in each irrigation) and irrigation disruption at the pod formation stage, and subfactor consisted of 0 (control), 20, 40, 60, and 80 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost. 

The results showed that under drought stress, the highest seed yield (1660 kg.ha-1) obtained in the treatment of 60 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost and 40 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost decreased the effects of drought stress. In full irrigation, the highest biological yield observed in treatments of 80 (7377 kg.ha-1) and 60 t.ha-1 (6132 kg.ha-1) spent mushroom compost and drought stress and no application of fertilizer decreased biological yield (46%). In drought stress conditions, application of 40, 60, and 80 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost increased water use efficiency compared to control, and the highest water use efficiency was observed in the treatment of 60 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost. Application of 80 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost increased the lateral branch number by 44% compared to control. The highest and the lowest pod number per plant were obtained in treatments of 80 to.ha-1 spent mushroom compost (27 pods per plant) and control (17.3 pods per plant), respectively. Less irrigation increased water use efficiency, so each level of SMC in full irrigation conditions did not significantly differ from similar levels under drought stress. The main consequences of drought in crop plants are reduced cell division and expansion rate, leaf size, stem elongation and root proliferation, disturbed stomatal oscillations, plant water and nutrient relations with diminished crop productivity, and water use efficiency. Spent mushroom compost is an excellent source of humus. SMC does not contain any pests or weed seeds because of the high temperatures associated with the composting and pasteurization processes. SMC also contains very low levels of pesticides and heavy metals. The negative effects of drought stress on plants of the legume family have been proven in other studies. Research on wheat reported that spent mushroom compost increased seed number per spike. 

The results showed that drought stress reduced most of the studied traits. Application of 20 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost did not significantly affect most studied traits. The highest effect on plant height, lateral branch number, and pod number per plant were observed in the treatment of 80 t.ha-1 spent mushroom compost. In general, according to the results of this research, applying optimum amounts of spent mushroom compost as an eco-friendly input in drought stress can improve growth characteristics and yield.

Conventional tillage can reduce infiltration and hydraulic conductivity by disrupting macrospore networks and increasing bulk density, porosity, water use efficiency, and soil organic matter. Conservation tillage is one of the practices of crop residue management on the soil surface. Reduced tillage is one of the conservation systems that amount remain crop residues on the soil surface. Reduced tillage has some benefits, including higher soil organic matter, soil moisture maintenance by reducing evaporation, better penetration of water, and controlling water and soil erosion. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers caused serious environmental issues globally, such as reduction of plant diversity, instability of economic yield, increased pest, and disease damages, and intensification of soil erosion. These increasing concerns regarding the negative impacts of these systems on the environment and human health suggest that more effort is needed to develop sustainable agricultural systems. The application of vermicompost and biofertilizers is regarded as one of the promising approaches to increasing crop productivity. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is mainly cultivated as a rainfed crop, and water stress often affects both productivity and yield stability. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the impact of different tillage systems and the application of vermicompost and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the growth, yield, and economic efficiency production of Cicer arietinum L.

A field experiment was carried out as a split plot based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 12 treatments and three replications at Firuzabad, Kermanshah, Iran, in 2019. The main factor was different tillage systems, including conventional tillage (moldboard plowing+ disking, tillage depth 25–30 cm- CT), reduced tillage (chisel plowing- tillage depth 15 cm- RT), and no-tillage (NT), and the sub factor was four different fertilization treatments (C: control, AMF: arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Funneliformis mosseae), VC: vermicompost (at 1.5 t/ha), AMF+ VC: arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi+ vermicompost). In AM fungi treatments, 80 g of the soil containing mycorrhizal fungi hyphae and the remains of the root and spores (1000 g spore.10-1 g soil) was added to the soil during planting times. Also, vermicompost (1.5 t ha-1) was applied to the soil before planting.

The Results demonstrated that the highest seed yield (116 g.m-2) and protein yield (24.2 g.m-2) was achieved in reduced tillage with the application of AMF+ VC. Also, reduced tillage increased the seed yield and protein yield by 19.6 and 17.1 %, respectively, when compared with CT. Different tillage systems and applications of vermicompost and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi significantly impacted the number of pods per plant, plant height, number of lateral branches per plant, number of main branches per plant, and biological yield. The highest mentioned traits were obtained in reduced tillage and with the integrative application of AMF+ VC. Moreover, the application of AMF+ VC increased the number of pods per plant, plant height, and biological yield by 37.2, 35.2 and 19.7%, respectively, in comparison to control. The highest pod total weight (155.8 g.m-2), harvest index (40.5%), and seed protein content (21.2%) were obtained through integrative application of AMF+ VC, and the lowest these traits were reached in control. Based on the economic values, the best treatments were RT+ C, CT+ C, AMF+ RT, and AMF+ CT, respectively, with the highest net income and Marginal rate of return.

Overall, the results of this experiment showed that there was a significant difference between tillage systems. The highest number of pods per plant,  plant height, number of lateral branches per plant, number of main branches per plant, biological yield, total pod weight, seed yield, and protein yield were achieved in reduced tillage that increased by 26.4, 16.8, 27.4, 28.6, 10.9 19.6 and 17.1 %, respectively when compared with conventional tillage.  Also, integrative application of AMF+ VC increased harvest index, 100 seed weight, biological yield, seed yield, and seed protein content by 16.7, 21.1, 19.7, 40.1, and 21.8%, respectively, when compared with control. The highest values of the seed yield and protein yield were obtained in reduced tillage with the integrative application of AMF+ VC. In contrast, based on the economic values, the maximum marginal rate of return was achieved in reduced tillage without fertilizer, conventional tillage without fertilizer, reduced tillage+ AMF, and conventional tillage+ AMF, respectively.

Food security is one of the most important challenges facing humankind. Therefore improving crop yields are essential to meet the increasing pressure of global food demands. The loss of high-quality lands, increasing fertilizer use, and its effect on the environment indicate that we need to develop new strategies to increase grain yields with less impact on the environment. One strategy that could help address this concern is by narrowing the yield gaps using improved management. Comparative Performance Analysis (CPA) is an approach for studying yield gaps; it defines quantified yield-gap functions. Assessing the yield gaps in major field crops can help us understand yield variability and potential. Rapeseed is one of the world’s most important oilseeds, and its production has economic and agronomic advantages. Rapeseed oil is considered a healthy ingredient and the third most used oil in foods. There is a difference between the average yield and the maximum expected yield of rapeseed in Khorramshahr. There are potential lands in this region that, by investigating the reasons for low yield, farmers can be encouraged to cultivate rapeseed on their farms. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the yield gap and the limiting management factors in rapeseed cultivation of Khorramshahr.

This study was carried out to investigate management factors causing the rapeseed yield gap in Khorramshahr during the 2018-2019 growing season. This study recorded information from 57 farms with variation in the area under cultivation, farm management and yield based on information from local experts and field studies. The comparative performance analysis (CPA) method was used to evaluate the yield gap. All information related to management practices was either measured or recorded. From the relationship between all measured variables (quantitative and qualitative) yield model was obtained through stepwise regression. By putting the best-observed value of the variables in the model, the maximum attainable yield was calculated, and the difference between them was considered a yield gap.

The yield observed in the surveyed farms, and the yield predicted by the model show a significant relationship. In this regard, the correlation coefficient was 93%, which indicates the high accuracy of the model for predicting the yield gap of the studied rapeseed fields. Based on the model, nine independent variables were selected from all studied variables. Then actual and attainable yield and contribution of each variable to the yield gap were determined by using the model. Results showed that the average yield, achievable yield, and yield gap of rapeseed were 1663, 3197, and 1533 kg.ha-1, respectively. The most important variables in the rapeseed yield gap were the use of the leveler, farmer’s education level, phosphate fertilizer application, time and amount of potassium fertilizer application and method of removing crop residues of the previous year, irrigation frequency, and sowing machinery. Factors that had the highest share of yield gap were potassium application time (27.14%), application of superphosphate (26.85%), potassium rate (25. 9%), crop residues removing method (9.63%), and use of lever (9.13%). According to the findings, the highest contribution to the yield gap was related to potassium fertilizer application time and superphosphate fertilizer application. These variables caused a yield gap of 416 and 411 kg.ha-1, respectively.ConclusionThis study showed a difference between the actual yield and potential yield of rapeseed fields in Khorramshahr, which can be reduced by modifying crop management. The observed yield gap was 1533 kg.ha-1 (48%). The results of this study indicate that fertilizer management of Khorramshahr rapeseed fields, especially potassium and phosphorus fertilizers, is important and should be considered by farmers in the region. More than half of the rapeseed yield gap can be reduced by using phosphorus fertilizer and changing the time and rate of potassium application in Khorramshahr.

Tomato and cucumber are now produced by using a high amount of chemical nitrogen fertilizer and a variety of biocides. These are hazardous to human health and the surrounding environment. Intercropping these plants with a legume such as green bean not only improves nitrogen use but also helps to enhance environmental conditions. Based on these assumptions, the present investigation was carried out to determine the effect of intercropping bean with tomato and cucumber on yield and yield components, land equivalent ratio, and nutrient use efficiency in a triple intercropping system.

This experiment was conducted between 2015 and 2016 on a private farm adjacent to Shirvan in the Northern part of Khorasan Province. The experimental layout was based on a randomized complete block design with six treatments and three replications. Treatments were a different combination of single, double, and triple rows of cucumber, tomato, and green bean together with the pure culture of each one. Criteria measured were dry matter, yield accumulation, fruit weight, economical and biological yield, harvest index, land equivalent ratio, and also nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium use efficiency.

As expected, dry matter yield accumulation in sole cucumber was higher than in other combinations, and a decreasing trend was observed when the ratio of cucumber was increased in intercropped. However, this was the reverse for tomato. Dry matter yield accumulation for green bean was higher in a single row intercropping than in others. Higher dry matter accumulation in intercropped seems to be associated with better resource use and lower interspecific competition and hence photosynthesis improvement. For cucumber, economic and biological yield in the pure stand was higher than the intercropped, while the harvest index was the highest in double rows intercropped. The economic and biological yield of green bean and tomato in pure culture was higher than in other treatments. In contrast, 1-row intercropping increased the green bean fruit in a plant by 18.42% and the tomato fruit weight in a plant by 62.38% compared to pure stand. Better light interception and efficient resource use seem to be the reason for better performance of intercropped compared with monoculture. However, nutrients use efficiency did not show a similar trend when nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium use efficiency in single row planting was higher for bean and tomato; this was not a common trend in general. Single row intercropped showed a 27% increase in yield on the base of land equivalent ratio.

Food security and sustainable agriculture are among the most challenging issues for the human being in the present age. These daunting challenges have arisen in the face of dramatic population growth as well as rising living standards, lifestyle, and, as a result, increased demand for a variety of foods. Due to limited water resources and arable lands, to achieve more production, it is necessary to increase the yield per unit area by using more materials (e.g., chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and fossil fuels) and energy. Obviously, in addition to the higher cost, it will lead to irreparable environmental consequences. In this regard, to achieve more sustainable production of agricultural products, there is a need to carefully evaluate the environmental status of these products in order to identify environmental hotspots to optimize them. Due to this, a study was conducted to assess the environmental damages to the soybean production system in different cities of Mazandaran province with a life cycle assessment (LCA) perspective. 

In the present survey, LCA approach was applied to evaluate the environmental impact and determine the most important hotspots of soybean produced in the cities scale of Mazandaran province (13 cities with soybean cultivation). LCA is a method that examines the environmental impacts associated with a product (or process) throughout its lifetime by accounting for resource consumption and pollutant emissions. For this purpose, the farm gate was considered the system boundary. Necessary data for LCA inventory were also obtained through face-to-face interviews with 303 farmers in 2019 and the EcoInvent 3.5 database in SimaPro 9.0.0.49 software. The potential environmental impacts were assessed by the IMPACT2002+ (v2.15) model in the software based on 1 ton of soybean seed produced as the functional unit (FU). Finally, impact assessment results of the soybean production system were presented in four environmental damage groups: human health, ecosystem quality, climate change, and resources. 

The findings revealed that soybean cultivation in the region and under the current conditions of inputs consumption has the highest impact on human health indicators that direct emissions from diesel fuel combustion and application of chemical fertilizers in the field play a major role in this damage category. Direct emissions from field operations claimed the highest share (>51%) in increasing global warming potential, which was mainly a result of CO2 emissions from burning diesel fuel. In addition, the findings of the present study showed that diesel fuel, followed by nitrogen fertilizer, had the most substantial role in the resources damage category. More generally, the total environmental damage for the production of 1 ton of soybean seed in surveyed cities ranged from 228.76 to 439.77 mPt, among which the cities of Galugah and Qaemshahr (228.76 and 261.18 mPt, respectively) had the least and Amol, and Sari (438.06 and 439.77 mPt, respectively) had the most value. To sum up, the LCA approach has been able to quantify the contribution of the soybean production system in causing environmental damage in the form of different damage categories by considering the amount of each of the inputs and their emissions based on a specific FU. 

In general, it can be concluded that diesel and chemical fertilizers inputs and direct emissions caused by their consumption on farms were the most substantial environmental hotspots. These factors, in turn, arise from the mismanagement of soybean farms in Mazandaran. Hence, it seems that efficient management practices by informing farmers and support of the authorities to provide appropriate facilities to farmers can be an important step toward reducing the environmental consequences and developing the cultivation of this valuable crop in the region. 

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of Tarbiat Modares University and the assistance of the esteemed officials of Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University, Agriculture-Jihad Organization of Mazandaran province, and especially the honorable farmers of this province to collect data for this study.

Soil is the richest and most diverse living community in any ecosystem. Soil organisms are responsible for the change and transformation of organic matter and the deformation and transport of nutrients such as nitrogen and sulfur. Therefore, they are an integral part of soil quality. In agricultural systems, useful macrofauna includes species that are involved in increasing crop yield and the ecological stability of the system. The objective of this study was the effect of agricultural systems (irrigated and rainfed) on the abundance and diversity indices of soil macrofauna in wheat fields of Ilam province, west of Iran. 

In this study, the abundance and biodiversity of the soil macrofauna arthropods in wheat fields of Eyvan (Ilam province) was investigated. Five samplings were performed during irrigated and rainfed wheat growth in the year 2019. For this purpose, five sampling units (replicates) were selected for ten fields. In each sampling unit, soil macrofauna was collected using pitfall traps and then counted. Diversity was calculated by Shannon-Wiener and Simpson indices, evenness by Pielou evenness index, and species richness with Margalef index. PAST software was used to calculate biodiversity indices. 

From 3753 macrofauna samples collected, 11 families belonging to different orders of insects and spiders were identified: (1) Diptera including Syrphidae and Muscidae, (2) Hymenoptera, i.e., Formicidae, (3) Coleoptera, i.e., Carabidae, Staphylinidae, Silphidae, Scarabaeidae and Cicindelidae, (4) Hemiptera i.e., Pyrrhocoridae, (5) insects larval from different families, and (6) spiders. The tiger beetles had the highest abundance in both irrigated wheat (25.48%) and rainfed (20.57%) fields. The T-test results showed that the agricultural environment change from irrigated to rainfed fields did not increase or decrease the number of families but increased the average total frequency (from 2100 in rainfed farms to 1653 in irrigated farms). Changing the agricultural environment from irrigated to rainfed caused an increase in the Shannon index, Simpson and Margalof; also, this change of agricultural environment from irrigated to rainfed has caused a decrease in the value of the Pielou index. The results showed that the Shannon-Wiener index and the Margalef richness in the rainfed wheat fields were significantly higher than in the irrigated fields (P≤0.05), however, the Simpson diversity in rainfed fields was higher than in irrigated wheat fields, but this difference was not significant (P≥0.05). Also, the Pielou evenness in the irrigated fields was higher than in rainfed, but this difference was insignificant (P≥0.05). The results also showed that the highest and lowest number of arthropods trapped in pitfall traps in rainfed fields were related to tiger beetles (21.4 ± 4.87) and red bugs (1.68 ± 0.18), respectively, and in irrigated fields, it was related to tiger beetles (13.60 ± 2.82) and dung beetles (2.16 ± 0.16). In general, the results showed that the frequency and diversity of soil macrofauna in the rainfed wheat fields were higher than in irrigated wheat fields. 

 The diversity of soil macrofauna arthropods in rainfed wheat fields was better than in irrigated wheat. Less use of chemical pesticides and agricultural machinery in rainfed wheat fields improves soil physical properties as well as provides suitable habitat for soil macrofauna arthropods, which increases diversity. Useful soil macrofauna is very sensitive to environmental changes, so as the environment is destroyed, the diversity and number of these macrofauna decrease. In general, according to the obtained results, it is necessary to avoid the excessive use of chemicals in irrigated wheat fields and to provide conditions for improving the biodiversity of soil macrofauna. These conditions can be created by reducing the use of chemicals on farms, but if you cannot for any reason, avoid the use of chemicals on farms, use other methods such as fallow, crop rotation, and also the cultivation of legumes in the agricultural program of the region provided these conditions.

In tobacco, chemical fertilizers are used to achieve the desired yield like other crops. In recent years, with the aim of maintaining soil fertility, improving physical and chemical properties, and creating a balance in environmental factors, the use of biofertilizers and compounds such as biochar has been considered in line with the goals of sustainable agriculture. Biochar improves soil's physical and chemical properties, increases microbial activity, and provides microorganisms with carbon, energy, and mineral elements. The positive effects of using biochar with some beneficial microorganisms can be intensified. In some studies, the effect of biochar on the abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and the positive effects of these in increasing yield have been reported. Mycorrhizal fungi can be considered a suitable solution to improve the plant's nutritional status by absorbing nutrients and more water, decomposing soil organic matter and improving the growth and development of host plants. Mycorrhizal fungi can increase water uptake by entering very small pores that even the plant roots cannot penetrate. Applying other useful soil organisms such as Azotobacter in tobacco fields due to its ability to dissolve phosphates and produce vitamins can improve plant growth and development. Considering that no research has been done in Iran on tobacco production without chemical fertilizers, in this study, the possibility of economic production of tobacco using biofertilizers and modifying compounds such as biochar is evaluated.

This experiment was carried out as a factorial based 3×2×2 on randomized complete block design including biochar (B) at three levels (0, 4, and 8 ton/ha), mycorrhiza (M), and Azotobacter (A) at two levels (without and with application) with four replications. The seedling roots of Azotobacter-containing treatments were inoculated ten days before transplanting. Also, mycorrhiza inoculum was mixed with the soil bed in a ratio of 1 to 10. The biochar was also distributed manually on the surface of the plots and mixed with field soil by a disc. The total weight of four picks of each experimental plot was calculated as fresh yield and after curing as dry plot yield. The leaf nitrogen content was measured by the Kjeldahl method, phosphorus was measured by spectrophotometer, and the amount of absorbable potassium was measured by reading potassium ions by flame photometer. Phillips and Hayman's (1970) method was used to calculate the mycorrhizal symbiosis of the root. The nicotine and sugar content was determined using the standard method Nos. 35 and 38 of the world organization of Corseta. 

Application of 4 ton/ha biochar increased fresh yield by 11%, cured yield by 12%, the leaf nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content by 13, 20, and 15%, respectively, and leaf nicotine and sugar content by 18 and 24% compared to zero level. The leaf nitrogen enhanced by increasing biochar consumption level. The highest amount of leaf nitrogen was obtained at the B8. The same trend was observed in leaf phosphorus content. But in terms of potassium content, the lowest amount was obtained at B0 with 2.6% and the highest at B4 with 3%. Application of mycorrhiza inoculum increased the fresh and dry yield by 6%. The positive results of this study in the simultaneous use of biochar and mycorrhiza and Azotobacter on the mycorrhizal symbiosis can be due to the positive effect of biochar in increasing the activity of other microorganisms such as mycorrhiza or reducing the negative effects of harmful chemical compounds in soil. In this study, although using Azotobacter increased the leaf yield, this increase was not significant. Also, the Azotobacter application had a positive and significant effect on nicotine content and increased it by 32%. The application of Azotobacter can be a desirable solution to increase tobacco nicotine content. 

Due to the lack of significant differences between 4 and 8 tons per hectare of biochar on the evaluated traits in terms of economic aspects, the use of 4 tons per hectare of biochar along with the use of mycorrhiza and Azotobacter to achieve acceptable yield while maintaining chemical quality in tobacco farms is recommended.

In the last few decades, one of the important problems in agriculture is the high cost of fertilizers in plant production and their dispersion in the field, which gives rise to soil and water pollution; moreover, their extensive use is believed to contribute to global warming through emissions of nitrous oxide. Therefore, in modern agriculture, which aims to reduce the input of fertilizers and improve grain quality without affecting yield.Cereal-legume intercropping system has been a common cropping system in arid and semi-arid areas  such as Afghanistan.Another way to reduce the application of chemical fertilizers to improve biological activity and increase soil fertility, increase crop yield and ultimately achieve stability in agricultural systems, is the use of organic fertilizers including livestock manure. Afghanistan's soils are deficient in organic matter, and there are various management approaches to soil nitrogen supply, such as application of chemical fertilizers, manure, and intercropping. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of nitrogen supply sources on quantitative and qualitative yield of wheat cultivars in Herat province of Afghanistan.

In order to determine the effect of nitrogen supply sources on different wheat varieties, an experiment was conducted in agriculture faculty research farm of Herat University-Afghanistan in 2018-19. The experiment was set up on split plot in randomized complete block design with three replications. The main plot factor was three different levels of nitrogen supply sources (mix cropping clover & wheat, N application (100 kg.ha-1 Urea), 40 ton.ha-1 manure application) and ten wheat varieties that are being cultivated in Herat were considered as subplot factors.After harvesting, plant samples were placed in oven at 65 °C for 48 hours and various parameters (total dry matter, yield and yield components, protein percentage, content of seed K & P) were measured in laboratory for each plot. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed by using GLM proc. in SAS version 9.1 and the lest significant different test (LSD) was used for mean comparison. 

Results showed that the effect of nitrogen supply sources on all wheat quality and quantity yield components, except on spike length, number of spikelet per spike and the amount of seed P and K, were significant. However the effect of variety, except on stem and leaf weight, and the amount of seed P and K in all measured parameters were significant. In addition, the interaction of nitrogen supply sources and varieties on spike length and weight, 1000 seed weight, seed yield and seed protein were significant. The highest amounts of all measured characteristics were obtained in chemical fertilizer application. But the difference between chemical fertilizer application and clover mix cropping on number of spikelet per spike, stem & leaf weight and total dry matter (TDM) were not significant.In addition, results showed that the measured traits varied in different varieties. The highest plant height was obtained in Gul-96 variety, but the Mazar-99 variety, Kabul-13 variety and Gul-96 variety were the same in producing TDM. While the Kabul-13 variety was produced the most spikes weight, seed per spike, seed yield, harvest index and highest protein yield. But the Baghlan-09 variety had the highest 1000 seed weight.

Results showed that different sources of nitrogen supply had a positive effect on the quantitative and qualitative yield of wheat. Also, different wheat varieties had reacted differently to nitrogen sources. The highest grain yield was produced by Kabul 13 wheat cultivar with 100 kg urea per hectare application, but no significant difference was observed between grain yield with urea fertilizer application and wheat clover mixed cropping system. In addition, there was no significant difference between the grain protein percentages on treatments with urea fertilizer application with wheat clover mix cropping. As a result, it is inferred that cultivation of Kabul 13 wheat variety in mixed with clover in a sustainable low-input agricultural system in Herat province of Afghanistan, like urea fertilizer application, will be able to increase the quantitative and qualitative yield of wheat as an offer the option to farmers.