نشریه بوم شناسی کشاورزی
سال پانزدهم شماره 4 (زمستان 1402)

IntroductionAt present, farmers are facing problems of shrinking landholding size, degradation of natural resources, climatic vulnerabilities and low financial returns due to escalating cost of cultivation and inefficient utilization of agroinputs. Thus, production per unit area of land, time and inputs needs to be improved by efficiently capturing the solar energy and carbon dioxide for conversion into economic product. In recent years, there has been increased interest in agricultural production systems in order to achieve high productivity and proIntroduction
At present, farmers are facing problems of shrinking landholding size, degradation of natural resources, climatic vulnerabilities and low financial returns due to escalating cost of cultivation and inefficient utilization of agroinputs. Thus, production per unit area of land, time and inputs needs to be improved by efficiently capturing the solar energy and carbon dioxide for conversion into economic product. In recent years, there has been increased interest in agricultural production systems in order to achieve high productivity and promote sustainability over time. Intercropping as a common method in sustainable agricultural systems, plays an important role in increasing productivity and yield stability to improve utilization of resources. One of the most important benefits of intercropping is increasing production per unit area compared with sole cropping. The reason for increasing the yield in the intercropping is the better use of environmental factors such as water, nutrients and light. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of mixed and row intercropping on yield and yield component of sunflower, cotton and fodder beet.

In order to study the effects of mixed and row intercropping of cotton, sunflower and fodder beet on yield and yield components in three species, a split-plot experiment based on randomized complete blocks design with three replicates was performed in research farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2017-2018. Cropping pattern (mixed or row intercropping) was allocated to the main plots and different planting ratios (50% Cotton +37.5% Sunflower +12.5% fodder beet, 50% Cotton +37.5% fodder beet +12.5% Sunflower, 33.3% Cotton +33.3% Sunflower +33.3% fodder beet, sole cropping of Cotton, sole cropping of Sunflower and sole cropping of fodder beet) were assigned to the sub-plots. Yield and yield component, indices such as Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) and Water Use Efficiency (WUE) were measured. For analyzing data, SAS ver.9.1 was used and mean comparison was performed based on Duncan test.

The results indicated that in intercropping of cotton, fodder beet and sunflower and in all plant ratios, the total LER was more than one. The highest LER was obtained in 50% cotton + 37.5% sunflower + 12.5% ​​fodder beet ratio and in both mixed and row intercropping patterns. The lowest LER was observed in ratio of 50% cotton + 37.5% fodder beet + 12.5% ​​sunflower and in mixed intercropping pattern. The highest amount of LER in cotton was obtained in ratio of 50% cotton + 37.5% fodder beet + 12.5% sunflower and in both methods of mixed and row intercroping and in ratio of 50% cotton + 37.5% sunflower + 12.5 % fodder beet was obtained in row intercroping pattern. In 33.3% cotton + 33.3% fodder beet + 33.3% sunflower ratio, cotton had the lowest partial LER in both mix and row intercroping patterns. Among different ratios of cotton planting, sole cropping with 0.32 kg / m3 had the highest and ratio of 33.3% cotton + 33.3% fodder beet + 33.3% sunflower, with 0.13 kg / m3, had the lowest water use efficiency.

Due to the different morphology, phenology and growth type of plants used in the present study, it seems that the intercropping of cotton-sunflower and fodder beet can increase the efficiency of using resources, especially water. So intercropping is one of the highly promising approaches for enhancing agricultural productivity and profitability that can provide sustainability in agricultural ecosystem. Intercropping  reduces  the  risk  of  crop  failure, improves  productivity  per  unit  area,  improves  profitability  and can  provide  a  pathway  to  food  security  in  vulnerable  production systems.

This research (Grant No. 47291), was funded by Vice Chancellor for Research of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, which is hereby acknowledged.

Salinity, as one of the world-wide limiting factors, can restrict the crop quality as well as world food products, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis L., Fabacea family), an herbaceous plant with both medicinal and domestic utilizes that the most salt-tolerant legumes, can improve the sustainable agriculture in saline soils. In order to minimize the harmful effects of salinity, various strategies including cost-effective and efficient use of the foliar spraying are adopted to increase plant tolerance by mainly alleviating Na and Cl injuries to the plants. Ascorbic acid (AA), a natural water-soluble antioxidant and proline, a beneficial solute amino acid, protects the plants as an anti-oxidative defense molecule during various stresses. Foliar urea application directly affects nitrogen metabolism in saline soils, and consequently amino acids synthesis.

Two years (2017-2018) field experiment were performed at a research field of Urmia University. For each year, the experiment was arranged in a split-plot design based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The main factor was soil salinity (0.9 dS/m – as none-saline and 6.7 dS/m – as saline soil), and also the sub factor was foliar application including proline (20 mM, 2.3 g/L), ascorbic acid (5 Mm, 0.9 g/L), urea (46% N, 10 g/L) and control (water spraying). plant biomass (oven-dried at 80 ºC for 48 h) and seed yield (with 15% moisture content) measured from harvested plants from 1 m2 of each experimental plot. The chemical composition of samples was obtained based on the standard procedures (The quantities of Photosynthetic pigments and osmolytes) and forage qualities. Comparison of means were performed by Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at 5% and 1% probability levels by using SAS and MSTAT-C statistical software.

The analysis of variance showed that the interaction between salinity and foliar application on biomass, grain yield, chlorophyll a, carotenoids, proline, soluble sugars and all the characteristics related to forage quality were significant. Also, the effect of salinity on chlorophyll b and glycine betaine, and the effect of foliar application on chlorophyll b were significant. The salinity increased the amount of acid-soluble fiber, water-soluble fiber and total ash, but the amount of crude protein, digestible dry matter, water-soluble carbohydrates and crude fiber were higher in non-saline condition. In non-saline condition, the use of ascorbic acid increased the amount of crude protein by 6.8% compared to the control, but in saline conditions was observed no significant effect. Under saline condition, foliar application of urea had the greatest effect on acid-soluble fiber and water-soluble fiber, so that in these conditions, urea-sprayed plants had 0.5, 7.86 and 1.69% more acid-soluble fiber than control plants and plants treated with proline and ascorbic acid, respectively. Also in saline conditions, the amount of water-soluble fiber in urea spraying was 0.46%, 3.32% and 6.31% higher than control, proline and ascorbic acid treatments, respectively. Proline improved biological yield and grain yield by reducing the adverse effects of salinity, while foliar application of plants with ascorbic acid did not show an additive effect on yield. Osmotic regulators can act as mechanisms to maintain cellular water potential in plants under salinity stress.

In general, biomass yield and grain yield were lower in saline conditions than in non-saline conditions. In both conditions, urea foliar application had the greatest effect on yellow sweet clover yield and increased its amount compared to control and other treatments. In general, yield reducing under salinity conditions may be due to inhibition of photosynthesis, which causes the plant to absorb fewer nutrients. Our data show that foliar application of urea in saline conditions counteracts the harmful effects of salinity on plant yield. Based on the results, the amount of NDF and ADF increased in saline conditions compared to non-saline conditions. The highest amount of acid-soluble fiber and water-soluble fiber was obtained in salinity conditions and by spraying yellow sweet clover with urea.

The authors of the article thank Mr. Vakili, Crop Physiology Laboratory, Department of Plant Production and Genetics, Urmia University, for his helps in conducting the experiments of this research.

Drought condition is one of the most important abiotic stresses through the world. In the first place, the best way to prevent the reduction of crop yields in drought conditions is to use natural compounds that play a key role in growth, development and response to environmental stresses. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Wild.) belongs to the Chenopodiaceae family, a plant with high nutritional value and rich in protein as a future crop. Due to the high resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses, global demand for quinoa is currently increasing and its global production is less than market purpose.

This experiment was conducted during 2020-2021 cropping season as split plots based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at research farm of Zabol University (UOZ), IR. Iran. The main plot factor was irrigation regimes at three levels: 1- Irrigation equal to 100% crop water requirement (control), 2- Deficit irrigation equal to 75% crop water requirement (mild stress), 3- Deficit irrigation equal to 50% crop water requirement (severe stress) and six levels of foliar application were assigned to the sub plot: Control (sprayed with distilled water without ethanol), 70% ethanol, 0.5 mM SA, 0.5 mM MeJA, 1 mM SA and 1 mM MeJA. In this study plant height, stem diameter, panicle dry weight, root dry weight, dry matter, seed yield, harvest index, stomatal conductance, electrolyte leakage, chlorophyll florescence and water use efficiency were measured. Determination of irrigation interval and crop water requirement was based on CROPWAT 8.0 software and Penman-Mantis equation. For plant coefficients used FAO default data. Irrigation planning was determined with 85% efficiency and water volume of each plot calculated using a digital water meter.

The results revealed that the irrigation 50% crop water requirement (severe stress), regime increased electrolyte leakage, water use efficiency and root dry weigh, whereas it did not significantly affected Fv/Fm, stomatal conductance and harvest index. The highest plant height with mean 144.02 cm was obtained from 100% crop water requirement and 1 mM SA and the lowest with a reduction 71.5% was obtained at 50% crop water requirement and no spraying conditions. Quinoa had 54.3% higher seed yield than control under drought stress conditions owing to unaffected Fv/Fm and stomatal conductance and less electrolyte leakage. Spraying 1 mM MeJA and SA increased chlorophyll fluorescence (22.4%), stomatal conductance (53.4%) and harvest index (38%). In severe drought stress (supply 50% crop water requirement), foliar application significantly increased the water use efficiency (from 0.2 to 1.1 kg m-3). In severe drought stress, increased quinoa seed yield was due to to increase in water use efficiency. According to the results drought stress decreased physiological and seed yield traits, 1 mM MeJA could increase the seed yield (292.93 g m-2) and then partially compensated for the reduction caused by drought stress. Also, seed yield with mean 281.96 g m-2 was in the second rank at 1 mM MeJA application and 75% crop water requirement (mild stress) conditions. Fv/Fm ratio was not significantly affected in drought stress. The highest harvest index was observed in 1 mM MeJA and SA compared to the control. Therefore, for minimizing the effect of drought stress, we could recommend the use of 1 mM MeJA.

The least stress treatment for quinoa economic yield supply was 100% crop water requirement (control) and 1 mM MeJA application. Also the average seed yield (281.96 g m-2) was at the second rank, in 1 mM MeJA and 75% crop water requirement (mild stress) treatment. It seems that stress tolerance mechanisms study and MeJA foliar application is necessary, especially in areas with less water and we need to develop crops that possible to produce high quantity with require low water in farm.

Sunflower is one of the plants that must receive nutrients, particularly nitrogen, and often responds positively to fertilizers. Optimizing fertilizer application in oil crops not only enhances grain yield but also leads to an increased percentage of seed oil. Furthermore, it improves plant resistance to environmental stresses such as drought, salinity, and frost. Additionally, this optimization contributes to enhanced biological activity in the soil, early crop production, decreased concentrations of pollutants like cadmium in seeds, reduced toxicity, and increased efficiency in water consumption. Despite the crop's considerable potential, its cultivation has been confined to relatively poor soils and has suffered from inadequate fertilizer management, marked by unbalanced nutrient consumption, thereby limiting its overall performance. Considering the comparatively low organic matter content in Iranian soils and the environmental repercussions of continuous nitrogen fertilizer use, ensuring optimal nutrition for this crop is crucial. Hence, given the significance and necessity of proper and environmentally sustainable nutrition, this study aimed to explore the impact of various fertilizer types on the yield and components of sunflower. The investigation also incorporated diverse nutritional supplements through foliar spraying to identify the most effective fertilizer in combination with a nutritional supplement.

A field study was conducted to determine the effects of different nutrition systems and foliar spraying on sunflower yield and its components. The experiment was conducted as a split-plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replicates on a research farm at “Khaje Marjan” village under the supervision of the Sophian Agricultural Jihad organization in 2019. Factors were soil fertilization (nitrogen fertilizer of urea, vermicompost, and mycorrhizae) as the main plot and foliar spraying (amino fish AMI-16, fulvic acid, and micro fertilizer) as the subplot. Soil fertilizers were used at the beginning of the growing season, and foliar sprayings were used before flowering and flowering stages. Data were subjected to ANOVA using Minitab ver. 17.0 and SAS ver. 9.2.0 statistical software. The main and interaction effects of experimental factors were analyzsed as a PROC GLM by slicing interactions in SAS software. The assumption of the variance analysis was tested by ensuring that the residuals were random, homogeneous, and with a normal distribution about a mean of zero using residual plots and the Anderson-Darling test. Means were separated using Fisher’s least significant difference (FLSD) test at a 0.01 significance threshold.

Results indicated that the highest yield and its components were obtained using mycorrhizae and vermicompost compared to nitrogen fertilizer. In addition, the highest yield and its components were obtained when micro fertilizer and amino fish AMI-16 were used as foliar spraying treatments compared to fulvic acid and control. Interaction effects showed that the highest yield and seed oil yield are related to micro fertilizer foliar spraying + vermicompost and micro fertilizer + mycorrhizae by 4292.90 and 2035.95 kg ha-1, respectively. However, there was no significant difference between these treatments and the application of amino fish AMI-16 as foliar spraying with mycorrhizae and vermicompost. Biological and organic fertilizers provide the required nutrients of crops during the growth period, and stresses are not imposed on nutrients and water deficit. Although fulvic acid is one of the effective sprays in increasing the yield and its components and increasing the performance of this industrial crop compared to control, its effect was less than micro fertilizer and amino fish AMI-16.

Therefore, it can be concluded that foliar spraying of micro fertilizer or amino fish AMI-16 with mycorrhizae and vermicompost can be provided water and nutrients required for sunflower plants in the sensitive growth stages especially seed filling periods, and resulted in increased yield and its components. The results of this study can be used in the extensive cultures of this industrial crop to achieve the highest grain and oil yield.

Sweet corn (Zea mays L. Var saccharata) is an important cereal crop that referred to considerable human nutrition and industrial products of its sugar content, minerals phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, vitamins in most of the literatures. The negative impacts of long-term application of chemical fertilizers on the soil, environment and human health in arid and semi-arid regions have resulted in an increase in application of biological fertilizers in these areas. The application of biological fertilizers is an environmentally-friendly approach to plant growth and production. Bio-fertilizers have been applied in agriculture to significantly reduce the application of chemical fertilizers and it is used as a strategy for improving crop productivity, sustainability soil health, environment friendly and cost effective.

This experiment was carried out as a factorial arranged as randomized complete blocks design with three replications during 2017 growing season at School of Agriculture, Shiraz University. The treatments included water regime at two levels (75% and 100% of water requirement) and five nitrogen rates and sources (no fertilizer, nitroxin, 150 kg urea, 150 kg urea + nitroxin and 300 kg urea). The traits included ear number per plant, row number per ear, grain number per row, canned grain yield, water use efficiency, ear harvest index, urease enzyme activity and soil microbial respiration. Crude protein was determined by Kjeldahl method, multiplied by the 6.25 (N × 6.25) conversion factor, and the results were then calculated as a percentage (%) and soluble sugar was measured by pocket model ATAGO refractometer. Moreover, ear harvest index was determined by the ratio of fresh grain yield (canned yield) per ear yield with husk, and urease enzyme activity and soil microbial respiration were estimated by the modified Kandeler and Gerber and Black et al's methods. Furthermore, yield and yield components were measured. Data were analyzed by using SAS 9.2 software and the means were separated using LSD test at 5% probability level.

The results showed that application of 150 kg urea + nitroxin significantly increased canned yield and its components, grain protein, grain soluble sugar, urease enzyme activity and soil microbial respiration, respectively compared to individual application of nitroxin and or 150 kg urea under water stress levels and there was no significant difference between 150 kg urea + nitroxin treatment and 300 kg urea ha-1. Normal irrigation (100% of water requirement) and combination of 300 kg urea + nitroxin, significantly increased ear number per plant (21.7 and 16.6%), row number per ear (21.4 and 21.4%), grain number per row (19.3 and 11.5%), canned grain yield (41.4 and 30.5%), water use efficiency (45 and 8.4%), ear harvest index (20.3 and 22.1%), urease enzyme activity (40.0 and 68.8%) and soil microbial respiration (12.1 and 1.6%), respectively and there was no significant difference between 150 kg urea + nitroxin and 300 kg urea compared to individual application of nitroxin and 150 kg urea. Therefore, application of nitroxin as a bio-fertilizer combined with 150 kg urea ha-1 produced the optimal canned yield and reduced nitrogen use and can be recommended in the arid and semi-arid regions.

According to the results, to improve the soil biological activity and yield and yield components of sweet corn, the combination of N150 and Ni instead of N300 is recommended and further research is also required to investigate the effects of applying Ni in combination with other bio-stimulants on yield and yield components of sweet corn.

We would like to thank the School of Agriculture, Shiraz University for their support, cooperation, and assistance throughout this research.

Wheat and maize are important and strategic crops in Iran. These crops are widely grown in the Dez catchment area. Therefore, due to climate change, recent droughts, water bankruptcy in the country, low water consumption efficiency in agriculture, and the excessive consumption of input which pose a serious threat to agriculture and food security, it is necessary to achieve a correct understanding of the sustainable production of crops in the region. Improper use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, fossil fuels, machinery causes irreversible damage to the environment. To reduce these adverse environmental effects of methods the idea of sustainable agriculture and the transformation of agriculture from high-input to low-input consumption is very important. The footprint index determines the amount of pressure on nature caused by man or other man-made systems. The carbon uptake criterion is used as a basis for assessing the ecological footprint. Ecological footprint estimates the amount of productive land needed to compensate for the environmental impacts of a particular activity by calculating resource consumption and carbon dioxide production. According to studies, each hectare of land can absorb 1.8 tons of carbon. The carbon uptake criterion is used as a basis for assessing the ecological footprint.

The method of the present study has a practical approach because it is in line with achieving sustainable agricultural development. This research was carried out in the cropping year of 2019-2020 at the Dez catchment. To determine the environmental sustainability of agriculture we used the modified ecological footprint method presented by Kissinger and Gottlieb (2012) and Guzman et al (2013). In this study, the ecological footprint was determined based on a place-oriented approach by obtaining energy consumption of the inputs, and the amount of crop and land energy. All the variables were collected in the form of a questionnaire and through interviews with 400 farmers of wheat and maize in the study area. Equivalent factors were also selected from similar studies. Independent samples t-test was performed between the two crops to determine whether there are differences in evaluation of EF.

The results of evaluating the ecological footprint method of wheat and maize cultivation in the study area at the level of one hectare were 3.50 and 4.66 global hectares, respectively. The results of the ecological footprint assessment for wheat and maize showed that both cropping systems are in an unsustainable state in terms of the environment. These systems produce 1.7 tons and 2.86 tons of excess carbon to produce wheat and maize, respectively which are more than the ecological capacity of one hectare to absorb environmental pollution. For both wheat and maize crops, nitrate fertilizer with 40.85% and 49.36%, diesel fuel with 18.57% and 17.60%, and water consumption with 14.57% and 16.31%, respectively, had the greatest impact on environmental instability in the study area. Mean comparison of the ecological footprint between the two crops showed that there was no significant difference between wheat and maize. The high ecological footprint of traditional agriculture was consistent with previous studies (Naderi Mahdei et al, 2015; Kissinger and Gottlieb, 2012; Bevec et al, 2011). Also, the important role of nitrate fertilizer and fossil fuels in increasing environmental hazards and ecological unsustainability was consistent with Fallahpour et al, (2012). It should be noted that No study was found to contradict the findings of the current study.

Both wheat and maize cropping systems were not environmentally sustainable and the total consumption inputs for both crops; chemical fertilizers, especially nitrate fertilizer and then diesel fuel have had the greatest impact on environmental instability in the study area. As a final result, the ecosystem of irrigated wheat production is more desirable than grain maize in terms of environmental sustainability, therefore, the production of both crops, especially maize, must be done with the highest accuracy and consider environmental considerations in the region.

     One of the main problems in arid and semi-arid regions of the country is the lack of water for irrigating agricultural products and other uses. Sistan and Baluchestan province is one of the provinces that is considered as one of the arid and semi-arid regions in Iran that is facing water shortage. The present study aimed at evaluating the trend of changes in water footprint of two crops that is wheat and watermelon as the main crops in Sistan and Baluchestan province. In this way, the changes in water footprint in the two components of blue and green water of products and the cause of these changes under the influence of various factors will be investigated.

     The present study aimed at evaluating the trend of changes in water footprint of two crops that is wheat and watermelon as the main crops in Sistan and Baluchestan province. In this way, the changes in water footprint in the two components of water and green water of products and the cause of these changes under the influence of various factors will be investigated. For this purpose, first the water footprint of these two products were investigated in all cities where they were cultivated in two sections: blue and green water footprint in a 30-years’ time span from 1978 to 2017. Then, by using Mann Kendall Trend Test, the trend of long-term changes was investigated. Water footprint calculations were performed through cropwat and aqua crop software and finally according to the blue and green water footprint formula in Excel.
 

     The results have indicated that the trend of changes in wheat water footprint has been increasing in Sarbaz and Iranshahr.  As for watermelon, this trend has been also increasing in Zahedan and Konarak and this is mainly due to reduced rainfall and yields. The average water footprint of wheat and watermelon in Sistan and Baluchestan province has been reported to be 2134.9 and 318.1, respectively. Moreover, the share of blue and green water for two crops of wheat and watermelon has been reported to be 1773, 361.9 and 291.7, 26.5 respectively. The results obtained in this study are consistent with Karandish's research (Kardashian, 2018). The 30-years trend of Mann Kendall method calculated water footprint in three sections of blue green and total water, as well as for yield and rainfall. The results of trend finding for both wheat and watermelon at 95 and 99% levels showed that the yield of watermelon in Nikshahr, Chabahar and Khash counties had an increasing trend and this reduced the blue water footprint and consequently reduced the total water footprint of the crop. Wheat crop is a more effective factor and with the changes of its 30-years trend, the water footprint of the crop, especially its green water footprint, has been affected. In Zabol, Iranshahr and Zahedan stations, this issue is quite evident and with the decrease of rainfall trend, the green water footprint of the crop has decreased.

     The results show more water footprint of wheat than watermelon, which is due to the high yield of watermelon versus wheat.  In comparing the green and blue water footprints of the crops, the results show a greater share of green water footprints in the wheat crop than the watermelon crop, which is also due to the length of the growing season and the date of cultivation and harvest of wheat and more use of rainwater resources. Evaluating the trend of change with Mann Kendall Trend Test indicates an increase in yield and a decrease in rainfall in the 30 years studied in two places, which has increased the blue water footprint and reduced the green water footprint of crops.

     The corresponding author gratefully Acknowledgements the financial support from University of Zabol (Grant No. 9719-21). We would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for very helpful comments and suggestions of the manuscript.

 One of the most important issues in improving the growth and increasing the yield of oil plants is proper nutrition and providing the nutrients needed by the plant during the growing season. Today, the use of biofertilizers in agriculture is considered as an effective way to reduce the consumption of chemical inputs to increase the quantitative and qualitative yield of plants, using beneficial soil microorganisms. Among these organisms, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria can be mentioned, which can increase the phosphorus uptake efficiency of plants. According to reports, humic acid is a stimulant of plant growth mainly by changing the root structure and growth dynamics, increases the root size, branching and its density.

A field experiment was conducted at the agricultural research station, Bu-Ali Sina University in 2020 growing season. The employed soybean cultivar was Habit. This factorial experiment was performed based on a randomized complete blocks design with three replications. Experiment factors were two levels of phosphorus fertilizer including application and non-application, biophosphate including inoculated and non-inoculated and foliar application of humic acid including 0, 2 and 4 g/l (during two stages of 15 and 30 days after emergence at the rate of 250 liters per hectare). In the present study, the interaction effect of humic acid and phosphate solubilizing biofertilizer was evaluated on phosphorus agronomic efficiency, water use efficiency, yield, yield components and quality characteristics of soybean. In this study, after checking the residual normality of the data, SAS software (Ver. 9.1) was used to analyze the variance of the data. Also to compare the means, Duncan's multiple range test at the level of 5% probability was used.

    The results showed that with phosphorus fertilizer application, simultaneous use of biophosphate and humic acid increased plant height (19.2%), biological yield (28.8%) and number of pods per plant (20.4%) compared to the lack of biophosphate and humic acid conditions. For the treatment level of non-use of phosphorus fertilizer and use of biophosphate, foliar application of 4 g/l of humic acid compared to 2 g/l increased the biological yield of soybean by 13.9%. 1000-grain weight of soybeans in phosphorus fertilizer application conditions did not show a significant difference between humic acid levels, but in non-phosphorus fertilizer conditions, foliar application of 4 g/l of humic acid caused a significant increase in 1000-grain weight compared to non-humic acid treatment. It seems that the application of humic acid has strengthened the relationship of the plant with phosphate solubilizing bacteria. Also the number of grains per pod of soybean increased by 14.6% with the use of biophosphate and 16.8% with the foliar application of 4 g/l of humic acid compared to the conditions of no-application of any of them. Applicatin of 4 g/l of humic acid and application of biophosphate increased grain yield by 27.3% and 26.4%, respectively. The highest percentage of seed oil (23.21) was obtained in the absence of phosphorus fertilizer and simultaneous application of 4 g/l of humic acid and biophosphate, while the highest percentage of grain protein (51.3) was obtained in the presence of phosphorus fertilizer, 4 g/l of humic acid and no biophosphate. In the absence of available phosphorus in the soil, the application of biophosphate takes precedence over foliar application of humic acid. This is evident as, without biophosphate application, there was no significant difference in the percentage of seed oil across various levels of humic acid. When biophosphate and humic acid were used in combination, compared to the sole use of biophosphate, the individual application of 4 g/l and 2 g/l of humic acid increased phosphorus agronomic efficiency by 21.1%, 35.7%, and 48.3%, respectively. The results indicate that the combined use of biophosphate and foliar application of 4 g/l of humic acid, in comparison to their absence, improved the water use efficiency of soybean by 25% and 26%, respectively.

Therefore, simultaneous application of 4 g/l of humic acid and biophosphate can improve growth, yield and increase soybean phosphorus agronomic efficiency and water use efficiency. However, to achieve a higher percentage of seed oil, the use of 4 g/l of humic acid alone is recommended.

Utilization of different plant nutrition systems in terms of optimal use of climatic factors, agricultural management and consumption of agricultural inputs can be an effective help to increase production and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers. Under such conditions, the use of organic manures can protect the environment and produce healthy agricultural products and provide better nutritional conditions for crops and have a favorable effect on plant growth. Organic manures are natural and safe products. Organic manures have positive effects on plant growth by increasing porosity and permeability, reducing soil bulk density and increasing soil water-holding capacity. The combined use of chemical and organic fertilizers, as a correct and rational management system, in addition to reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and preventing their harmful effects on surface and groundwater, can maintain the nutritional balance in plants and increase their yield. Recognizing the significance of integrating organic and chemical fertilizers in sustainable agriculture, this study was undertaken to examine the variations in yield and yield components of sunflower nuts. The investigation focused on the utilization of different levels of chemical fertilizers and pelleted poultry manures.

This experiment was performed as a randomized complete block design with 11 treatments in three replications in the research farm of University of Kurdistan in 2018. Experimental treatments including poultry manure in combination with chemical fertilizers including 1000 kg of poultry manure + zero chemical fertilizer, 1000 kg of poultry manure + 25% of recommended chemical fertilizer, 1000 kg of poultry manure + 50% of recommended chemical fertilizer, 2000 kg poultry manure + zero chemical fertilizer, 2000 kg poultry manure + 25% of recommended chemical fertilizer, 2000 kg poultry manure + 50% of recommended chemical fertilizer, 4000 kg poultry manure + zero chemical fertilizer, 4000 kg poultry manure + 25% of recommended chemical fertilizer, 4000 kg Poultry manure + 50% of recommended chemical fertilizer, 100% chemical fertilizer application (recommended) and no fertilizer application. In this experiment, traits such as plant height, head diameter, 1000-seed weight, number of seeds per head, biological yield and grain yield were measured.

The experimental results highlighted the positive impact of combined poultry and chemical fertilizer treatments on both grain yield and yield components. This included an increase in the number of grains per head, maintaining a 1000-grain weight by enhancing the number of grains per head, boosting biological yield, grain yield, and harvest index. Additionally, improvements were observed in grain quality, with elevated protein, oil, phosphorus, and potassium content in sunflower seeds. Notably, the most favorable outcomes in terms of grain yield were observed in plants treated with 4000 kg of poultry manure + 25% chemical fertilizer (1413 kg/ha-1), those without poultry manure + 100% chemical fertilizer (1411.2 kg/ha-1), and those treated with 4000 kg of poultry manure + 50% chemical fertilizer (1367.07 kg/ha-1). These treatments exhibited the highest grain yield, representing a substantial increase of 60.57%, 60.3%, and 54.55% compared to the control treatment (880 kg/ha-1). Treatments of 4000 kg poultry manure + 25% chemical fertilizer, no poultry manure + 100% chemical fertilizer and 4000 kg poultry manure + 50% chemical fertilizer had the highest percentage of harvest index, respectively. Treatments of 1000 kg poultry manure + 25% chemical fertilizer, 2000 kg poultry manure without chemical fertilizer, 1000 kg poultry manure without chemical fertilizer and also control treatment had the lowest percentage of harvest index. Treatment application of 1000 kg poultry manure + 25% chemical fertilizer (39.84%) had the highest percentage of seed oil, but there was no significant difference with other fertilizer treatments and only with control treatment (32.91%) had a significant difference. The highest amounts of grain protein, phosphorus and potassium were obtained from the combined treatment of 25% chemical fertilizer + 2000 kg of poultry manure.

In general, due to the negative effects of chemical fertilizers, the combined treatment of 4000 kg.ha-1 of poultry manure + 25% of the recommended chemical fertilizer with the highest grain yield was the best fertilizer treatment. From the results of this study, it is inferred that using organic and chemical fertilizers in sunflower cultivation, in addition to achieving acceptable yields and improving grain quality, can increase the efficiency of fertilizer application and use chemical fertilizers that have negative effects on the environment and environment. Crop systems have proven to shrink and move towards achieving sustainable agricultural goals.

  Intensification of agriculture along with increasing use of chemical pesticides can have significant environmental effects on other non-target organisms as well as various environments such as air, soil and water. Increasing concerns about the negative effects of pesticide resulted some indicators that measure the environmental risk of each pesticide. One of these indicators is the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ), which has been used repeatedly to monitor environmental pesticides in a wide range of agricultural and horticultural fields. The purpose of this study is to investigate the environmental effects of pesticides used in wheat fields in Bandar-e-Turkeman county in 2019-2020 year.

To implement the model, information about the name, amount of consumption and times of application of pesticides used by farmers were collected in the form of questionnaires and face-to-face interviews with 59 farmers. The Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) of these pesticides was extracted from version 2021 of the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) site. The environmental effect of used pesticides in each wheat field was obtained from the sum of EIQ of pesticides in the amount of consumption and dose of pesticides per hectare. The calculations of this model were done in Excel version 2013.

The result showed that the final EIQ score for all toxins had the highest impact on the ecological section. Imidacloprid (92.88), Carbendazim (86.00), Acetamiprid (71.95), Cyproconazole (67.00) and Deltamethrin (65.15) had the highest toxicity for the ecological section, respectively. Based on the results, Carbendazim was introduced as the most dangerous and the insecticides Acetamiprid and Imidacloprid were the least dangerous toxin for the farm workers. Calculation of environmental impact of pesticides per hectare showed that there was a high numerical variation among surveyed fields. So that the lowest of index related to fields No. 25, 55 and 42 they had about 6.31, 7.01 and 7.02 environmental impact, respectively. In these fields, no pesticides were used during the wheat growing period and only at the time of planting, carboxin fungicide was used for seeds at the rate of 0.45 and 0.50 kg/ha. The fields No. 40, 10, 30 and 35 recorded with EIQ-FUR equal to 41.49, 33.20, 31.20, 30.85 and 30.67, respectively. In these fields, we were observed the highest environmental impact per hectare. In continue, the distribution map of this index in studied fields was produced. The results showed that there is a different variety in terms of pesticide application in fields, therefore target points can be determine to farmers for reduce of pesticide application and field with high environmental impact.

Among the three components of the EIQ index, including risk to farm workers, consumers, and ecology, the numerical values of these three components can vary depending on location. The current values of this index do not take into account differences in the technology of application or use of personal protective equipment. It can be concluded that the EIQ model requires changes in the direction of localization with the study areas, including the number of farm workers, specifying the type of tools and equipment used and separating the type of developed or developing countries. In general, in these fields, the management of pest, the identification and management of weeds diversity can be effective in controlling the amount of pesticide consumption and reduce environmental risks.

We would like to thank Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, wheat farmers and agricultural Jihad management of Bandar-e-Turkeman county for their cooperation in conducting this research.

 Water is considered as one of the main factor driving agricultural activities. It is predicted more than 67% of the world's population will suffer from water shortages in their habitats that by 2050. Therefore, maximizing water efficiency is the best solution to deal with the problem. Water productivity is an important factor in evaluating the efficiency of irrigated and rainfed systems. Sugar beet is one of the strategic crops in Iran which its area under cultivation has been decreased in the last two decades, especially in Khorasan Razavi Province. The high water requirement of sugar beet and the problem of water shortage during spring and summer are the most important reasons for the decrease in the area under cultivation of this crop. Given the crisis in water supply for crop production, increasing water productivity in irrigated agroecosystems can be considered as a suitable strategy to increase the area under cultivation and yield of crops. In recent years, different studies have been conducted to increase the water productivity of different crops using simulation models.

 In this study, root yield and water productivity of sugar beet were evaluated in response to three different sowing date treatments (20 February, 21 March, and 21 April) and four irrigation interval treatments (10 days, 12 days, 14 days and treatment with model according to the crop water demand) in Neyshabur, Sabzevar, Quchan, and Torbat Jam locations. For this purpose, the SUCROS simulation model and long-term meteorological data were used to estimate the growth and production of sugar beet. In addition, the trend of sugar beet daily water demand as well as changes in soil water in different treatments during the growing season was extracted and analyzed.

 The results showed that the highest yield of sugar beet (63.80 t ha-1) was obtained in Sabzevar by sowing on 20 February and irrigation with 10 days intervals while in Torbat Jam, Neyshabur, and Quchan, the maximum root yield (66.44, 109.38 and 112.15 t ha-1, respectively) was achieved by sowing on 20 February and irrigation based on crop water demand.  In contrast, sowing sugar beet on 21 April with 14 days of irrigation intervals in all studied locations resulted in the lowest yield among different treatments. Water productivity comparison in different locations showed that in Sabzevar, Torbat Jam, and Neyshabur, the treatment of the 20 February sowing date and irrigation based on crop water demand resulted in maximum water productivity (4.08, 4.52, and 8.10 kg m-3, respectively) and in Quchan, the treatment of 20 February sowing date and 14 days irrigation interval with 7.70 kg m-3 led to the maximum water productivity. The results also indicated that in Sabzevar, the lowest water productivity was obtained by sowing sugar beet on 21 April and irrigation with 14 days intervals, and in Torbat Jam, Neyshabur and Quchan, the minimum water productivity was simulated by sowing date of 21 April and 10 days irrigation intervals. Evaluation of the relationship between the length of growth season (as a criterion of sowing date) with sugar beet yield and water productivity in all locations showed that there were significant relationships among these variables and the length of growth season at 1% of probability level, which indicated the importance of early cultivation in increasing the sugar beet production and water productivity in Razavi Khorasan Province.

The findings of this study suggest that modifying the sowing date, in comparison to adjusting irrigation intervals, may have a more significant impact on enhancing sugar beet yield and water productivity. Additionally, in warmer locations like Sabzevar and Torbat Jam, exploring alternative options such as autumn sugar beet cultivation is advisable. In light of the constraints posed by limited water resources, it is recommended that researchers prioritize investigations into water productivity rather than solely focusing on maximizing crop yield.

Acknowledgments:

The authors are grateful to Dr. Reza Deihimfard from Shahid Beheshti University, Iran for providing valuable comments and his advice on methodology.

In recent years, the heightened concentration of greenhouse gases has brought increased attention to the pressing issue of climate change. Therefore, monitoring climatic variables to prevent the adverse effects of climate change is more important than ever. In the pursuit of long-term climatic forecasting and the assessment of their evolving patterns, various international scientific societies have concentrated their efforts on understanding the extent of climate change and devising measures to counter its adverse effects. The development of general circulation models of the atmosphere (GCM) has been a significant stride in this direction. However, GCMs may lack precision in predicting minor changes at a local scale. To address this limitation, the utilization of downscaling models such as SDSM and Lars_WG (that were used here) becomes imperative. These models serve as essential tools for simulating the viability of cultivating agricultural species in the future, especially when considering localized impacts. Because climate change will probably change the conditions for growing canola, as one of the strategic and prominent crops in Iran, studying the effects of this worldwide event on the canola-grown fields in the future is needed. 

In this research, using temperature and precipitation forecasting models along with GIS functions and hierarchical analysis process (AHP), canola suitability classes for 2050 were determined in Mazandaran Province. For this, 37 meteorological and synoptic stations were involved, and climatic data (including temperatures and precipitation) were generated under three RCP scenarios (2.6, 4.5, 8.5). In this study, we utilized two general circulation models (Can-ESM2 and HadGEM2-ES) that had been recommended for application in the study area.

A comparison of the involved models showed that the SDSM model was superior in predicting temperature, while the Lars-WG model performed better in predicting precipitation. The results for the land suitability revealed that the changes in climatic variables in the future would lead to changing the suitability of agricultural lands for growing canola. The examination of temperature change maps in the investigated region revealed that both minimum and maximum temperature variables are poised to rise under climate change scenarios, with a more pronounced increase anticipated in maximum temperatures. The findings indicate that the projected temperature increase in the future will establish more conducive conditions for canola cultivation. Additionally, precipitation patterns exhibit an increase in both RCP 2.6 and 4 scenarios, with a more substantial rise in the RCP 2.6 scenario. Conversely, the RCP 8.5 scenario predicts a decline in precipitation levels. Top of Form
Also, considering the climate change scenarios, the spatial distribution and the area of each suitability class changed slightly, so the high-suitable class will extend under RCP2.6, especially toward the center parts of the study area. Under RCP 8.5 and RCP 4.5 scenarios, not only suitable lands were not considerable, but also the less suitable land extended to the southern and western parts of the study area.

The output of the land suitability maps showed that climate change would change the suitability of the studied agricultural lands in the future. Also, with the implementation of the climate change scenarios, the area and geographical distribution of detected classes will change. In general, in the optimistic scenario, the lands will be more appropriate for canola cultivation and will cover a wider area. In other scenarios, the conditions for canola cultivation in the lands of Mazandaran will be more unsuitable compared to the present, and the decrease in the level of suitability will be more evident in the western and southern lands of the province. Therefore, solutions such as the use of more compatible cultivars and changes in agricultural management in facing new conditions in these areas should be considered. The outcomes of these studies offer practical insights for shaping regional planting strategies, aiding decisions on crop inclusion or exclusion, and informing the overall design of agricultural patterns in the area